Ancient Indian Historical Tradition

ANOJENT
INDIAN HISTORICAL TRADITION

ANCIENT

INDIAN HISTORICAL
TRADITION

BY

F. E. PARGITER, M.A.

INDIAN CIVIL bRHVICF 'R1

r,A'rra JiTTHiK, mem COURT, cAw

L O N I) O N

OXFORD UN I V K RSI T Y P K ESS
HUMPIIIIKY MILFOR1)

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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HJJMPHREY MILFORD

Publisher to the University

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

FIFTY YEARS OF
PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

18781928

EDITED BY
AIDAN DE BRUNE

OPPORTUNITY

They do we wrong who say I come no more
"When once I knock and faAL to find you in;
For every day I stand outside your door,
And fad you wake and nse to fight end win,

WALTER MALOKB.

AUSTRALIA:
HALSTEAD PRINTING COMPANY LTD,

ALLEN STREET, WATEBLOO
1929

Wholly set up and printed in Australia by

HCaJstead Printing Company Ltd.,

Allen Street, Waterloo

Registered by the Postmaster-General for
transmission through the post as a book

CONTENTS

PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT IN NEW SOUTH WALES . 1
PROGRESS OP GOVERNMENT IN VICTORIA , 10
PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 15
PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT IN QUEENSLAND ... 18
PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA . 23
PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT IN TASMANIA , 26
PROGRESS OF AUSTRALIA TOWARDS FEDERATION . . 28
PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT UNDER FEDERAL PARLIA-
MENT 37

PROGRESS OF AUSTRALIA THROUGH THE GREAT WAK 50

PROGRESS OF RAILWAYS IN AUSTRALIA CS

NEW SOUTH WALES 08

VICTORIA 65

QUEENSLAND 67

WESTERN AUSTRALIA 69

TASMANIA 70

COMMONWEALTH . 71

QUESTION OF GAUGE 74

PROGRESS OF TRAMWAYS IN AUSTRALIA 75

NEW SOUTH WALES 7$

VICTORIA H

QUEENSLAND 7S

SOUTH AUSTRALIA , 79

TASMANIA 79

WESTERN AUSTRALIA 70

PROGRESS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN AUSTRALIA . . 80

NEW SOUTH WALES 80

VICTORIA 87

QUEENSLAND . 90

SOUTH AUSTRALIA 93

WESTERN AUSTRALIA 9&

TASMANIA .97

SYDNEY HARBOUR BRIDGE 90

FIRE BRIGADE 99

PROGRESS OF TRADE AND COMMERCE IN AUSTRALIA . 101

PROGRESS OF THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY IN AUSTRALIA . 11 G

ri CONTENTS

PROGRESS OF STOCK-BREEDING , IN AUSTRALIA . . 128

SHEEP 128

CATTLE 132

HORSES 136

PROGRESS OF THE WOOL INDUSTRY IN AUSTRALIA . 138

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE IN AUSTRALIA . . 142

PROGRESS OF VITICULTURE IN AUSTRALIA . . 165

PROGRESS OF DAIRYING IN AUSTRALIA . . 167

PROGRESS OF FRUIT-GROWING IN AUSTRALIA . . 174

PROGRESS OF BEE-FARMING' IN AUSTRALIA . . .177

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION . . . ,178

PROGRESS OF IRRIGATION IN AUSTRALIA ... 179

PROGRESS OF MINING IN AUSTRALIA . . .186

COAL 186

COPPER 188

GOLD 190

DIAMONDS .... .... 195

IRON AND STEEL ... . , . . . 195

SILVER AND LEAD . .' 197

TIN 19J

OPALS 199

ASBESTOS 200

SOME WELL-KNOWN CITIZENS OF THE PERIOD . . .201
THE "WALTER AND ELIZA HALL" TRUST . . .260
FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS OF THE MERCANTILE

MUTUAL INSURANCE CO. LTD 263

INTRODUCTION

ONE hundred and forty-one years ago Australia was so
little known to the white races that, when Governor
Arthur Phillip landed at Sydney Cove on January 26,
1 788, he did not know whether the land he had been sent
out to govern and populate was a continent or a group
of islands. So little was known of the great land beneath
the Southern Cross by mariners who had sailed the
southern seas that, yoyaging from London to Port Jack-
son, they sailed wide round the south coast of Tasmania
ignorant of Bass Strait.

Fifty years ago, Australia might be likened to an
overgrown schoolboy only just becoming aware of the
strength that was his inheritance; hesitating; acknowledg-
ing yet not understanding, the latent powers of body and
mind with which he was endowed; afraid to test himself;
groping forward with his chief interest centred upon the
minor matters immediately surrounding him.

A population of about two millions, with interests
almost entirely parochial and with but little knowledge of
the great world seething to the north, far on the other
side of the globe a nation in embryo, as if set apart for
some special purpose by a Supreme Master who chose to
guide, but not to reveal

Yet into the parochialism that made colonial politics
of supreme importance, the rivalry between the various
independent colonies, came the driving power of gold.
Vast areas of land hitherto unknown were found to
contain enormous wealth. From the far places of the

viii INTRODUCTION

world men and women streamed to the world-wide lure.
For a time it was uncertain whether Australia would be
swamped as a nation or would emerge from the test puri-
fied and sufficiently strong to absorb the foreign elements
thrust upon her.

The fact that Australia came through the gold-days
with strength unimpaired shows the inherent power of her
people. She had learned a lesson 5 her eyes were lifted
beyond the length of coastline which before had bounded
her horizon. She realized that outside her boundaries
lay countries and people from which she had indeed
sprung, but with which she had only the slender thread
of connection comprised in the two familiar words "Col-
onial Office." Dimly she realized that far over the seas
lay the mother country which had given her birth. Again
and again her people had wandered down to Farm Cove
to watch a new Governor step from his launch, surrounded
by his glittering retinue j conscious that he had come from
a far land whose customs were like, yet strangely unlike,
their own.

And yet the soul of Australia lay dormant. Not yet
was she to awake, and with one long stretch feel in her
limbs the powers that had grown, almost unconsciously,
through nearly a hundred years. Not yet was she to arise
in her vigour and claim and take her true place in the
councils of the nations.

For the moment she was to remain quiescent, watch-
ing her children pass along the ill-paved, macadamised,
or dirt-made roads winding between the low small-win-
dowed houses of her towns and cities* In quiet
adolescence she was to watch her children stumble
over the raised tram-lines that disfigured her streets,
and dodge under the heads of the horses drawing
hackney-coaches; her men dressed in high silk hats
and cut-away coats close-fitting over tight-strapped

INTRODUCTION ix

trousers j her women floating along with mincing feet
and wide-spread crinoline skirts later to be succeeded by
high-puffed sleeves and that wonderful abnormality, the
bustle. She was to watch the English garrison soldiers
in their red and blue uniforms, with bands loudly blaring,
march through her streets, as if through those of a con-
quered city, and smile.

She could not dream, young mother of a nation, that
before another half-century had passed she would be
sending her sons to the battle-fields of Gallipoli, Flan-
ders, and Palestine, so that by their strength and blood
she could claim for herself a voice in the complex destiny
of this planet. Yet on her bosom were eyes already
turned to the new horizon j men who were dreaming
of Australia as one nation % nation whose voice must be
listened to by the people of empires whose lands lay
thousands of miles away.

Twice Australia had blooded her sons. Once on the
sands of Egypt, to avenge the death of Gordon the
empire-builder; once on the wide veldts of Africa, to
preserve to the motherland the lands she had created
from the wilds and the wealth her sons were garnering.

Beside the mighty quest of future years these were
but minor adventures, almost to count as the escapades
of adolescence. Australia was not yet ready. Above
her the skies were blue and bright there were no signs
of the storm-clouds that, even then, were gathering over
Europe to spread until they covered the whole earth.
For nearly another quarter of a century Australia was
to content herself, almost exclusively, with her domestic
concerns. Slowly, surely, she was setting her house in
order, unaware of the inferno of war lying on her road,
yet guided by an all-seeing Providence to make ready for
the day of awakening and trial.

Federation came, and Australia became consdous that

x INTRODUCTION

she had reached maturity. The long trips to England
undertaken by her representatives grew from journeys of
ceremony and celebration to earnest discourses on world-
wide problems with the men who ruled the Empire of
Greater Britain. At home she assimilated the ideas
brought from abroad. In 1879 the once unknown lands,
so close to her towns and cities, were conquered and now
grew golden harvests. Her plains were lined with her
railways; her coastal vessels sped from port to port along
the huge coastline south, west, and north again from
Cooktown to Derby and back to Cooktown. In her ports
assembled the ships of all nations of the world. From
her mountains and plains she garnered her wealth, to
exchange it for the commodities brought to her doors.
Australia was awakening to what?

With the sudden mighty anger of a tornado the
war-clouds burst over Europe and the motherland
thirteen thousand miles away. Yet Australia heard. It
was as if she had been awaiting the signal to rise to her
full strength the lion's cub, with teeth bared and claws
unsheathed.

"To the last man and the last shilling!" Across
seas and soils the message flashed to the land that had
given Australia birth. And well the promise was kept*
Twenty thousand men forthwith! Twenty thousand men
for the adventure in Europe and that number was filled
within a few hours of the moment when the recruiting
booths opened their doors. Twenty thousand men stood
without, clamouring for a chance to show the nations of
the old world that Australia had awakened j clamouring
for arms and uniforms, that they might join their brothers
on the journey to the far-flung battle-fields. Later on
those twenty thousand became four hundred thousand*

The Great War of 1914-18 made Australia a nation.
War may be hateful} it may be unnecessary; but it is

INTRODUCTION xi

and from its blood-stained battle-fields new nations
spring. How long, without the stress of battle, would
Australia have remained self-centred and quiescent? A
century might have passed before the Southern Cross
nation found and realised her strength. Generations
might have passed before the old-world empires of
Europe and Asia would have listened to Australia's voice
and understood her language.

From the war-torn fields of Europe and Asia the
sons of Australia came home, conscious of the heritage
that was theirs. They came back to those who, not
yet having suffered the agonies of battle, had learned
and suffered much. The new nation was awake! Old
shibboleths had disappeared 5 new thoughts, new stan-
dards, new ideals had taken their place. Australia had
awakened never to sleep again.

THE PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT IN
NEW SOUTH WALES

FOR many years prior to 1878 politics in New South
Wales had consisted of a series of duels between the fol-
lowers of Sir Henry Parkes and those of Sir John Robert-
son. The general elections of 1878 resulted in a very plain
intimation from the electors that they had become tired
of politics and wanted government. Neither of the
leaders had a sufficient majority to take office. There was
no third party. Either another election had to be fought
or a coalition formed. Wise councils prevailed, and the
Parkes-Robertson Ministry was formed on December 21,
1878.

Twelve years earlier, in 1866, Sir Henry Parkes had
guided through Parliament a Public School Act which
placed the expenditure for primary education under a
Council for Education. The Council was given the widest
powers, including provision for granting aid, under re-
strictions, to denominational schools. The Act provided
that in all schools instruction was to be secular and re-
UgiouS) the term "secular" being made to include general
religious teaching.

The new Act of 1880, introduced to Parliament
by Sir Henry Parkes, had for one of its principal objects
the withdrawal of financial aid from denominational
schools. This was m compliance with public feeling at
the moment; in many influential quarters there had been
expressed the opinion that public money should not be
spent on denominational teaching. Another provision of
the Act brought education under the direction of a Mini-

2 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

ter of the Crown and made school-teachers public servants.
The Act, however, retained in the public schools the
"secular-religious teaching" provided under the previous
Act.

A Great International Exhibition was held in the
Inner Domain, Sydney, during 1880, the building (the
Garden Palace) having been erected specially for the
occasion. The Exhibition closed on April 20, 1880, but
the building was retained, and for some considerable time
housed a number of the exhibits. On the night of Sep-
tember 22, 1882, it was totally destroyed by fire.

A conference of Australian Premiers was held at
the end of the year 1880 to consider the Chinese immi-
gration question now becoming a matter of vital import-
ance to Australia. For many years the gold-miners and
trades-unionists had agitated against the unrestricted
admission of Asiatics. The employment of Chinese on
the ships of the Australian Steam Navigation Company
brought the question to a head. This Company held
the Australian mail contract, and, as its headquarters were
in Sydney, the ships were held up on their return to their
home port. The strike was supported by the trades
unions in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South
Australia, and as far away as New Zealand* The
Queensland Government also supported the strikers, in-
timating to the Company that if the Chinese were not
discharged it would withdraw its mail subsidy. After
long negotiations the Company discharged the Chinese
seamen,

For the first time in the history of Australia the
trades unions discovered their strength. Arrangements
were immediately put in hand for the holding of an in-
tercolonial trades-union congress. This was held in Syd-
ney, and emphatically condemned the importation of
Chinese into the country, calling upon the New South

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 3

Wales Government to restrict their immigration by the
imposition of an entrance tax.

New South Wales had not been the only colony to
feel the effects of Chinese immigration. Queensland
suffered perhaps more severely than any of the other
colonies. Yet Victoria and South Australia were almost
overrun with Asiatics. Sir Henry Parkes, who had for
some time agitated for a system of intercolonial congress,
seized the obvious opportunity and summoned a confer-
ence of Colonial Premiers. At that conference he sub-
mitted the motion: "That in the opinion of this Confer-
ence the grave consequences that must follow the
influx of large numbers of Chinese call in a special manner
for the concerted action of all the colonies, both in repre-
sentations to the Imperial Government and in local
legislation."

Acts of Parliament restricting Chinese immigration
were passed by the various Colonial Governments. New
South Wales and Victoria decreed that vessels could only
carry one Chinese passenger to every 100 tons burthen,
and imposed an entrance fee of 10 on every Chinese
immigrant $ this was done despite strong opposition from
the two Legislative Councils. In Victoria, Chinese were
specially debarred from voting at parliamentary and muni-
cipal elections. In South Australia vessels were allowed
to carry one Chinese passenger to each ten tons of ship-
ping, the Northern Territory being excluded from that
provision. Queensland increased the stringency of her
restrictions on Chinese immigration in 1884. Not more
than one Chinese was allowed to each 15 tons of shipping
and an entrance fee of 30 was imposed. Western
Australia did not impose any restrictions on the entry
of Chinese into her territory until 1886j it then expressly
exempted from the Exclusion Act those Chinese who
entered the country under contract.

The Conference of Premiers to deal with Chinese

4 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

immigration gave Sir Henry Parkes an opportunity to
bring forward a motion for the establishment of some
central authority to deal with the many intercolonial ques-
tions always arising. He managed to secure some sup-
port from the Premiers sufficient to obtain the drafting
of a scheme. Then, for a time, the matter was shelved.

The Parkes Ministry came to grief at the end of
1882 over Sir John Robertson's Land Bill. Sir Alexander
Stuart, formerly a protege of Sir John Robertson, took
office as Premier and Colonial Secretary. His first
measure was to rectify the mistakes existing in Sir John
Robertson's Land Act of 1861, which, it was claimed,
had succeeded in encouraging "peacocking" by the acquisi-
tion of volunteer land orders and the selection of water-
frontages in positions that left large areas of land water-
less. While the Act had succeeded in securing some
honest settlers, it afforded a great opening to a large army
of rogues who, taking up land on the squatters' runs,
"settled" there with the sole object of compelling the
squatters to buy them out at high prices.

Early in the year 1885 the news was received in
Sydney of the capture of Khartoum and the death of
General Gordon. A letter in the Sydney Morning
Herald from Sir Edward Strickland suggested that Aus-
tralia should offer military assistance to Great Britain.
The Premier, Sir Alexander Stuart, was in New Zealand
at the time, but W. B. Dalley, the acting Premier, called
a special cabinet meeting, which decided that New South
Wales should offer the mother country an expeditionary
force of 500 infantry, supported by two batteries of field
artillery armed with ten sixteen-pounders to be landed
at Suakin, on the Red Sea, within thirty days of embark-
ation. The offer was accepted by the British Govern-
ment in regard to the troops and one battery, with the
proviso that the contingent should be under the command-
ing officer in the Sudan.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 5

The contingent left Sydney on March 3 and arrived
at Suakin on the 29th. It was brigaded with the Guards
and saw service at Tamai. This was the first military
help offered to Great Britain by any of the colonies.

Sir Alexander Stuart resigned office on October 6,
1885, and George Richard Dibbs, who had held the port-
folio of Colonial Treasurer under him, formed his first
ministry. In the election fight of 1 885 Sir Henry Parkes
ousted Dibbs from the St Leonards seat. Dibbs then
contested and won at Murrumbldgee. The election re-
sulted in Sir John Robertson again securing the premier-
ship, only to resign office through ill-health in the follow-
ing February.

Sir Patrick Jennings, who had been Vice-President
of the Executive Council under Sir Alexander Stuart, un-
dertook to form a ministry. He managed to secure sup-
port in his Cabinet from both sides of the House, but
the elements of his ministry were too discordant, and he
had to resign. Sir Henry Parkes now stepped into
power, sweeping the polls at the 1887 elections. His
ministry lasted until 1889, and the most notable measures
passed in this Parliament were the establishment of a
Standing Committee on public works and of an inde-
pendent board of railway commissioners, and the ratifica-
tion of the naval agreement made with England at the -
Colonial Conference held in London in 1887.

The last years of Sir Henry Parkes's political career
were devoted to forwarding Federation. During the
Premiers' Conference of 1890 he met with a severe acci-
dent which enforced his absence from the colony's
assembly. The presidency of the Federal Convention of
1891 took him frequently from his office as Premier.
When he returned to his parliamentary duties, he found
that his personal influence had been greatly undermined*
On bringing before the New South Wales Parliament the
draft bill proposed by the Federal Convention he encoun-

<5 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

tered a very determined opposition led by George H.
Reid. This opposition he met and defeated, but, instead
of immediately attacking the opponents of the Federation
Bill and forcing the measure through Parliament, he
let it lie aside and gave preference to local matters.
During 1891 came the general election of the colony,
and although Parkes retained office in the new Parliament
he only did so with the support of the newly formed
Labour Party. Their support was withdrawn in the
October of 1891, and Parkes resigned office and retired
from politics.

George Richard Dibbs again became Premier, taking
office at the head of an avowedly protectionist ministry.
After carrying through the protectionist tariff that had
won him the elections, he went to England. There he
engaged in strengthening the financial position not only
of New South Wales but of Victoria, South Australia,
Tasmania, and New Zealand, for which colonies he had
been asked to act. While in England he received the
honour of knighthood.

When Dibbs returned to New South Wales he was
the centre of one of the most sensational scenes that have
ever taken place in Parliament. During one sitting of
twenty-six hours and eighty-seven speeches he had to fight
three censure motions. The first he defeated by thirty
votes, the second by sixty-two votes, and the third by
four votes. In 1893, during a financial crisis, his
Government proclaimed all notes issued by local banks
legal tender, thus stemming panic and restoring con-
fidence. At the elections of 1894, fought largely on the
fiscal question, Dibbs was severely defeated, and resigned.

George H. Reid, who had led the opposition against
Sir Henry Parkes for some time, accepted office and
formed his ministry in 1894. His main programme was
retrenchment and the revision of the finances of the
colony. To remove the Public Service from political

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 7

interference he created a non-political Board in which were
invested all appointments and promotions. Another
measure introduced by him was designed to break up the
aggregation of big landed estates whose owners did not
make full use of the soil. Further, he introduced a Land
Tax, based mainly on the owners' own valuation of their
property, but was prevented from adding to it an import-
ant proviso, borrowed from the New Zealand Act, per-
mitting the Government to buy any estate at the owner's
valuation for tax. With the support of the Labour Party
he remained in office until September 1899, when W. J.
Lyne, the leader of the anti-federalists, accepted the
premiership.

The South African war commenced soon after Lyne
assumed the premiership, and he immediately informed
the Governor, Earl Beauchamp, that New South Wales
was ready to despatch 1860 officers and men to assist the
Empire's expeditionary forces. This offer was accepted
by the British Government.

In domestic matters Lyne tried to introduce women's
suffrage, but his bill was rejected by the Legislative
Council. In 1900 he was knighted, and entered the
Federal Parliament as a member of the Barton Ministry.

John See organized a ministry of New South Wales
out of the members of the Lyn-e Cabinet and held the
office of Premier until 1904. In that year he resigned
and was succeeded by T. Waddell, much to the disgust
of B. R. Wise, who had expected the reversion of the
premiership. Again in 1904 there was a party re-shuffle,
out of which Joseph Carruthers emerged as Premier at
the head of a ministry of untried men, among whom Sir
Charles Gregory Wade was Attorney-General. In Octo-
ber 1907, Wade re-formed the party under his own
premiership. For three years he led opportunist col-
leagues in a difficult Parliament, dealing with industrial
troubles and unwelcome social reforms with a stubborn

8 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

straight-forwardness which gained him respect from all
quarters. His parliament lasted until 1910.

At the 1910 general elections the electors sent to
Parliament a Labour majority under the leadership of
James Sinclair Taylor McGowen the first Labour Pre-
mier of New South Wales. McGowen took office in
October 1910, and in 1911 was summoned to London to
represent his State at the coronation of King George V.
During his absence the leadership fell into the hands
of an active subordinate, W. A. Holman; and on
McGowen's return to Australia he was induced to accept
the office of Colonial Treasurer, with a nominal premier-
ship. In 1913 the Labour Ministry was completely re-
cast, with W. A. Holman holding the premiership and
McGowen as Minister for Labour.

Holman did not long succeed in retaining the loyalty
of the party within and without Parliament. He quarrelled
with the "machine" over the conscription question, on
which he supported the Federal Prime Minister, W. M.
Hughes, and in 1916 he re-formed his ministry as a
"National" one.

The Holman National Ministry lasted until 1920.
It was succeeded by the John Storey (Labour) ministry,
which lasted eighteen months and was more remarkable
for the silence of its leader than for the work accom-
plished. Storey died while in office and was succeeded
in the premiership by James Dooley, who retained office
for only two months. Sir G. W. Fuller then held the
reins of government for seven hours. Dooley came
back to office and held the premiership for the Labour
Party until April 1922.

In that year Sir G. W. Fuller formed a coalition
ministry out of the National and Country Party members
returned from the 1922 general elections, and held office
until June 1925, when John T. Lang, who had succeeded
to the leadership of the Labour opposition, went with a

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 9

big majority to the government. The Lang Parliament
was remarkable for two measures. The first was an at-
tempt, mainly by Lang alone, to impose a tax on news-
papers per copy sold. Although warned by many of
his own followers that such legislation was illegal, the
Premier persisted in forcing the Bill through. The news-
papers combined and resisted, and within a few months
obtained a decision of the High Court that the legislation
was unconstitutional.

Had J. T. Lang studied Australian history he would
have learned that, almost exactly one hundred years
before he brought forward his newspaper legislation,
Governor Darling had tried to muzzle criticism of his
Government by the imposition of a similar tax. The then
Chief Justice, Francis Forbes, declared a newspaper tax
inconsistent with English law. The Governor accepted
the advice, but two years later tried to impose a stamp
duty on each copy of the newspapers sold. Again Forbes
refused to certify that such legislation was legal. The in-
cident was one of the main causes that brought about
Darling's downfall and recall to England. The second
noteworthy measure passed by the Lang Government was
the 1926 Workers' Compensation Act which contained
drastic amendments to the Act then in force, the weekly
compensation payable was increased to a maximum of
5 per week to all persons under contract of service
receiving less than 750 per annum. The new Act was
forced through Parliament as a party measure without
discussion being allowed thereon, the gag being applied
after the first six clauses were read.

On October 8, 1927, the New South Wales general
elections resulted in a severe defeat for the Labour
government. T. R. Bavin, who had been Attorney-Gene-
ral in the Fuller Government, assumed office as Premier.
One of the first acts of this Government was to place

io FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

the city of Sydney under three Commissioners, owing to
the disrepute into which civic government had fallen.
This was the city of Sydney's second experience of Com-
mission rule, a previous abolition of the City Council
having taken place some seventy-five years before.

THE PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT IN
VICTORIA

IN the colony of Victoria, at the beginning of the
year 1877 the long-drawn-out fight between the Assembly
and Legislative Council was drawing to a close. Sir
Graham Berry and Charles Pearson had returned from
England after their fruitless mission to persuade the Im-
perial authorities to intervene in the dispute. The home
authorities had declared, in no uncertain terms, that with
self-government the colonies must settle their domestic
differences within their borders.

Sir Graham Berry had won the premiership (1877)
after an election of notable heat. The programme which
he presented to the new Parliament included some very
controversial measures, particularly a land tax intended
to break up large estates j a permanent provision for the
payment of Members of Parliament (previously effected
by short-time acts) j and a drastic measure of reform of
the Legislative Council. The land bill was passed
with little opposition, but the second chamber put forth all
its strength to defeat the Payment of Members Bill. An
attempt to "tack" the obnoxious measure on to the Appro-
priations Bill resulted in the council refusing to pass
appropriations, and leaving the Government without the
money to carry on with. Then followed "Black Wed-
nesday." Sir Graham Berry, to impress the situation
forcibly on the electors, dismissed in one day a number
of county court judges, police magistrates, goldfields
wardens, and permanent heads of important departments

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA t i r

of the administration, pleading that the council had re-
fused him the money to pay their salaries.

Berry's visit to England disturbed the Legislative
Council. For five months after his return to Victoria
he was in opposition, with Sir James Service in the pre-
miership. The elections of 1880 swept him again into
power, with a good majority. The Legislative Council
was in a more complaisant mood, and an arrangement was
come to, through intermediaries, by which the "payment
for members" clauses were withdrawn from the Appropri-
ations Bill, the Legislative Council undertaking to pass
"payment for members" as a separate measure, though ex-
pressly providing that none of the clauses of the still (to
them) obnoxious bill should apply to the Upper House.

During the year 1881 Sir Graham Berry was forced
to appeal again to the electors. But first he had succeeded
in forcing through Parliament a bill enacting some
measure of reform in the Legislative Council. The term
of appointment was limited, its numbers were increased
from thirty-eight to forty-two, and in other ways it was
modernized. But the electors were by this time tired of
the continued bickerings between Sir Graham Berry and
the Council, and they returned Sir B* O'Loghlen at the
head of the Government. This ministry was not a strong
one, but was willing to work with the Council for the
general good of the country.

Two years of ordered government, broken by no
political fights, followed j then the elections of 1883
brought back to Parliament Sir Graham Berry and Sir
James Service, with almost equal numbers of followers.
If Government was to function, a coalition was necessary,
and this time Sir Graham Berry did not refuse to join in
the ministry with Sir James Service, The coalition mini-
stry was very successful, for the two leaders were able to
bring into their joint cabinet the best material among their
respective parties. The time of the Houses was devoted

12 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

to constructive legislation, and some of the most important
measures passed were the Public Service Act, which pro-
vided for entrance into the service through examination
and control by a non-political body; the Railways Man-
agement Act, which freed the construction and control
of the railways from political interference 5 a Discipline
Act, organising the colony's defences 5 a Mallee Lands
Act, throwing open to farmers millions of acres in the
far north-west corner of the colony j and a Water Conser-
vation Act, providing for the development of the Murray
Valley lands by irrigation.

Sir Graham Berry and Sir James Service were grow-
ing old and weary of the political game. Perhaps the
coalition, with a very large majority in Parliament, had
taken the zest from the old strenuous political fights. In
February 1886 they both resigned from office, leaving
the government to their lieutenants, Duncan Gillies, who
had held the Ministries of Public Instruction and Rail-
ways, and Alfred Deakin, who had been Solicitor-General
and Minister for Public Works in the coalition.

The Gillies-Deakin ministry is unique in the history
of the colony for a long period of peace and unexampled
prosperity. A large and increasing revenue enabled the
premier, Gillies, to pursue his favourite schemes in the
expansion of the railways, tramways, wharves, and docks.
Deakin, who took the portfolio of Water-supply, devoted
much of his attention to irrigation in northern Victoria
and especially the Murray Valley. In spite of the very
large sums spent by the two leaders on their projects, the
surplus revenue accumulated, in less than three years, to
over 1,600,000 more than one-seventh of a year's in-
come,

In 1890 a wave of industrial unrest swept over
Australia, involving every colony. Gillies' somewhat
peculiar financial system could not accommodate itself to
the strain, and on November 5, 1890, he was defeated in

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 13

Parliament, and James Munro, who had acquired a great
reputation as a financier through his English deals, as-
sumed office. In spite of his reputation Munro could
not meet the demands made on him, and he resigned
office in 1892, accepting the succession to Sir Graham
Berry as Agent-General for the colony in London.

William Shiels, who had been Attorney-General and
Minister for Railways in Munro's Ministry, and who was
mainly responsible for the Amending Railways' Manage-
ment Bill of 1891, took over the premiership, reorganis-
ing the cabinet. His chief political achievement during
his premiership was the extension of women's rights in
connection with divorce. He held the office of Premier
for not quite twelve months and was succeeded by J. B.
Patterson, who retained the position for a year and eight
months.

George Turner succeeded to office and held the
Government from September 1894 until December 1899
five years of serious financial stress. During his ad-
ministration there was imposed, for the first time in Vic-
torian history, an income tax. He followed this with
a Factories and Shops Act 5 a Credit Foncier Act, to pro-
vide cheap money for farmers 5 and an Old Age Pensions
Act. In 1897 he journeyed to London to represent his
colony at the Diamond Jubilee and the Imperial Confer-
ence. Incidentally he was given a D.C.L. degree at
Oxford and an LL.D degree at Cambridge, and was also
knighted.

Towards the end of 1899, Turner was defeated in
the House, after leading the case of Federation, so far
as his State was concerned, to a successful issue. He was
succeeded by Allan McLean, who held the premiership
some eleven months before Sir George succeeded in turn-
ing the tables and ousting him from office. At the first
Federal Parliament elections in 1901, Turner resigned his
seat in the State Parliament and contested and won the

14 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Federal Balaclava seat. A. J. Peacock took over the
leadership of the Victorian Parliament, to hold it only
until June 1902, when W. H. Irvine defeated him and
formed a ministry which underwent many changes dur-
ing its two years' existence. Thomas Bent, a keen-witted
parliamentarian, of rough and ready manners, was the
mainstay of this ministry, and to him belongs the credit
of defeating the great railway strike of 1903. During
this strike Irvine discovered that public servants could ex-
ercise great pressure on their parliamentary representa-
tives-, and, as a temporary measure, he carried an Act
disfranchising them so far as the ordinary constituencies
were concerned, but giving them members of their own.
In 1904 he resigned the premiership to Bent, serving
under him as a private member.

The long terms of office of the Irvine-Bent Mini-
stries came to an end on January 8, 1909, when Bent was
defeated by John Murray, who retained office until 1912,
when he resigned, leaving W. A. Watt to re-form the
cabinet. In December 1913, Watt in turn suffered de-
feat, and G. A, Elmslie, with a Labour Ministry, took the
premiership, to hold it only for thirteen days, when Watt
again became Premier. The Watt Parliament lasted until
June 1914.

In that year Sir A. J. Peacock again took over the
Government, with John Murray as Chief Secretary. This
ministry ruled until the end of 1917, when John Bowser
formed a short-lived cabinet of four months. He then
resigned the office of Premier to H. S. W. Lawson, and
took the portfolios of Chief Secretary and Minister for
Health.

After five years of office the Lawson Government
went to the electors and was returned again to power with
a good majority. Six months later the Premier re-
organised his ministry, but at the end of the next month
resigned the cares of the premiership to Sir A. J. Pea-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 15

cock. Three months later the Peacock Government was
defeated and G. M. Prendergast formed a Labour Mini-
stry. This Government held office for only four months}
it then resigned and was succeeded by a John Allan
Government, which lasted until the elections of 1927.
Again the political pendulum swung, and the Labour
Party, obtaining a working majority, took office. In
1928 the Labour Party was in turn defeated and Sir
William McPherson formed a ministry.

THE PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT IN
SOUTH AUSTRALIA

ON March 25, 1876, William Morgan, chief secretary
in the Boucaut Ministry, resigned office, intimating to
his electors that he would not contest the seat at the
general elections to be held the following year. Before
the elections he went to England and, while there, heard
that he had been nominated and returned at the head
of the poll for his old constituency. He returned to
South Australia, took his seat in the Council, and was,
by unanimous vote of the Chamber, made its leader during
the dispute with the Colton Ministry of 1876-7. On
Boucaut forming his fourth ministry, Morgan accepted
the portfolio of Chief Secretary, becoming Premier when
Boucaut resigned in September 1 878 to take up a Supreme
Court judgeship. In 1881 Morgan reconstructed his
ministry, to meet defeat three months later and retire
finally from politics.

John Cox Bray took over the premiership on June
24, 1881, and held office until June 1884. He was
succeeded by John Colton, who held the leadership of
the Government for a year, passing through Parliament
during that period an Act embodying the principles of
land and income taxation. In 1885, John W. Downer
ousted Colton, only to make way for Thomas Playford,

16 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

who in his Parliament carried through the first Austra-
lian protective tariff.

John Alexander Cockburn became Premier of South
Australia in succession to Thomas Playford in June 1889,
but managed to retain office only until August 1890.
During that interval, however, he passed important Acts
dealing with succession duties and a progressive tax on
unimproved land values. In 1890, Playford succeeded
in wresting the Government from Cockburn, to hold it
until June 1892, when he was defeated by F. W. Holder,
who held office for a brief four months and then gave
way to Sir J. W. Downer, The Downer Ministry was
short-lived, retiring in June 1893 in favour of the C. C.
Kingston Ministry.

Charles Cameron Kingston was an "advanced
Liberal" with a wide programme of reforms, nearly all
of which he succeeded in putting into effect. The prin-
cipal Act that he passed in this Parliament dealt with
women's suffrage. Other measures concerned factory
legislation 5 a "progressive" tax on land, income, and in-
herited wealth $ industrial conciliation 5 a protective tariff 5
payment of members $ and the establishment of a State
Bank. An excellent parliamentary draughtsman, Kings-
ton constructed most of his own legislation, being par-
ticularly careful that the intention was clear and carried
into effect. On December 1, 1899, after having been
premier since 1893, he was defeated and succeeded in
office by V. L. Solomon, who retained the premiership
exactly seven days before handing it on to F. W. Holder,
who had led a short-time ministry in 1892. In May
1901 Holder resigned, to represent a South Australian
constituency in the Federal Parliament, where he became
Speaker of the House of Representatives. J* G. Jenkins,
who had been Chief Secretary and Minister for Health
under Holder, formed a ministry which retained office
until 1905, when Richard Butler took the premiership for

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 17

four months to make way for Thomas Price, who led
the first definite (long-lived) Labour Ministry in any
Australian State. His Cabinet was a coalition of Liberal
and Labour men. During his four years in office he was
responsible for measures relating to Wages Boards, the
municipalisation of the South Australian Tramways
(which up to then had been under the control of private
companies), and the transference of the Northern Terri-
tory to the Federal Government which was finalised in
1910. Price died in 1 909, while Premier of his State.

The very successful ministry of Price, brought to a
close by his death, was followed by a reorganisation of the
Cabinet under A. H, Peake, who had filled the offices of
Treasurer and Attorney-General under Price. Peake
carried on the Government for one month, then again
re-formed the Cabinet and governed for one year. He
was defeated by John Verran in 1910, but two years later
succeeded in regaining the premiership. In April 1915
Crawford Vaughan, who had been Treasurer and Com-
missioner for Crown Lands in the Verran Ministry, took
over the Government for two years} but again, in July
1917, Peake succeeded in gaining a majority and held the
Government until 1920.

The general elections occurred in April 1920, and
Peake was again returned to office, but resigned the pre-
miership to Sir H. N. Barwell. In 1924 Barwell was
defeated, and John Gunn formed a purely Labour Mini-
stry. During August 1926 Gunn accepted a seat on the
Federal Development and Migration Commission, resign-
ing the premiership, which was taken over by L. L, Hill.
The Hill Ministry continued in office until April 1927,
when the general elections resulted in the return of the
Liberals to office, under the premiership of R. L. Butler.

i8 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

THE PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT IN
QUEENSLAND

ALMOST immediately that the John Douglas Ministry met
Parliament after the Christmas recess of 1878 Thomas
Mcllwraith led a sensational attack which resulted
in the defeat of the 'Government. Mcllwraith then
formed a Government, and continued to hold office until
the end of 1883. The outstanding event of this Parlia-
ment was the annexation of New Guinea by the Queens-
land Government, against the opinions and wishes of the
British Government. Queensland, with the support of
the whole of Australia, succeeded in keeping a precarious
hold on the southern coast facing Australia, but, through
the very ingenious attitude of the Imperial Government,
the north coast of the island fell into the hands of the
German Empire.

Soon after the upstir caused by the Papuan affair
died down Mcllwraith ratified, over the head of Parlia-
ment, a contract for a direct mail service between London
and Brisbane via Torres Straits. In 1883 he attempted
to force through Parliament a bill for a railway from
Charleville to the Gulf of Carpentaria on the land-grant
principle. Samuel Griffith, who led the opposition, bitterly
opposed this project, and succeeded in persuading Parlia-
ment to reject it. Mcllwraith, impatient of defeat, re-
signed, and Griffith undertook to form a ministry.

In office, Griffith was responsible for the Payment
of Members Act. During his term of office he passed
many measures through Parliament the Crown Lands
Act, throwing great areas of the colony open to settle-
ment 5 the Trades Union System Bills } and an Act em-
bodying the principle of Employers' Liability. One of his
greatest measures was a Local Government scheme.

At the general elections of 1888 McIiWraith boldly

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 19

challenged Griffith in his own electorate, defeating him
there and in the total polls; he then formed the second
Mcllwraith Ministry. Almost immediately after he took
office again he quarrelled with the Governor, Sir Anthony
Musgrave, over the privilege of pardons. Mcllwraith
claimed that the privilege was really exercised by the
ministry, the Governor merely acting on the advice of his
responsible ministers. A man named Benjamin Kitt had
been sentenced to three years' imprisonment for the theft
of two pairs of boots. Mcllwraith and his ministers con-
sidered the sentence vindictive, and wished the man to*
be pardoned. The Governor refused to accept the advice,
and when the Cabinet, led by Mcllwraith, pressed the
matter, declared that the pardon privilege rested with
him alone. Mcllwraith forcibly dissented, and the
Governor then offered to submit the matter to the Colo-
nial Office. Again Mcllwraith dissented, and, because the
Governor would not give way, offered his resignation*
This was accepted, and Boyd Morehead was commissioned
to form a ministry.

Although Mcllwraith had not accepted the Gover-
nor's offer to submit the question of the pardons privilege
to the Colonial Office, Sir Anthony Musgrave did so on
his own account. The answer received is worthy of
record for its ambiguity* The Governor was informed
that he was bound to obtain the advice of his ministers,
before taking action ; that, having obtained such advice,,
he might follow it or not as he pleased 5 that in the case
under review the Governor was within his rights, but
"would have exercised a sounder judgment if he had
subordinated his personal opinion to the advice of his
ministers" a decision almost equal to the famous "Yes-
No" of Sir George Reid of a later era.

For some time Mcllwraith lent his support to his.
former colleagues, now the Morehead Ministry, acting
as a member of the cabinet without portfolio, Morehead

20 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

retained office mainly because the remaining members of
the Cabinet were too jealous and distrustful of each other
to permit of their combining against their leader. The
Premier succeeded in keeping his difficult team together
until 1889, when Sir Thomas Mcllwraith he had been
knighted in 1882 quarrelled with him over the amount
of money which should be spent on the Brisbane railway
station, and unexpectedly came to a political agreement
with his old enemy Sir Samuel Griffith. A year later
the Morehead Ministry fell. Morehead's short term
of office was responsible for the first Queensland Payment
of Members Act, a very advanced mining regulations
Act, and a "record" sitting of the Assembly, which met
at 3 p.m. on Monday, October 28, and sat until 4.15 p.m.
on Friday, November 1 97^ hours in all.

The Griffith-Mcllwraith Ministry, which took office
in August 1890, accomplished little work of note. Sir
Samuel Griffith and Sir Thomas Mcllwraith shared the
office of Premier. For two and a half years the old
antagonists succeeded in holding their coalition ministry
together, then Griffith resigned, to take the office of Chief
Justice of the Colony.

Mcllwraith continued the ministry alone, also holding
the portfolio of Secretary for Railways and Chief Secre-
tary. He brought into his cabinet Hugh M. Nelson as
Treasurer and Vice-President of the Executive Council.
Nelson had been Secretary for Railways in Mcllwraith's
1888 Ministry, and, after his leader's coalition with Sir
Samuel Griffith, had led the opposition. During this
ministry there was a financial panic in the colony and
Nelson was responsible for the measures that helped to
stem the crisis chief of which were the Queensland
National Bank Agreement Act and the Public Depositors'
Relief Act.

In 1893 Mcllwraith resigned the premiership to
Nelson and took the portfolio of Chief Secretary. Later,

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 21

in 1895, he resigned office and Parliament through ill-
health, and went to England, where he resided until his
death.

During this period there was grave industrial unrest
throughout Queensland, and in 1894 there occurred a
shearer's strike, which almost became an insurrection,
necessitating the passing of a drastic Act for the better
preservation of peace. Nelson was opposed to the
separation movement which agitated for Central and
Northern Queensland to be created separate states,,
chiefly because he feared that dismemberment would lead
to another financial crisis. In 1897 he represented the
colony at the Diamond Jubilee celebrations and at the
Imperial Conference in London, He was knighted in
1896, and, when his ministry went out of office, in 1898,
became President of the Legislative Council.

The Byrnes Ministry, which held office for only five
months during 1898, was merged in the James Robert
Dickson Ministry when Byrnes died, in office, in September
1898. Dickson held the premiership for fourteen months,
when he was defeated by Andrew Dawson, the first Labour
Premier for any state in Australia. Dawson, however,
only held power for seven days. His ministry was
notable for including among its members Andrew Fisher,
later to become Prime Minister of the Commonwealth,,
and William Kidston, who later was to become a Labour
Premier of Queensland.

On the defeat of Dawson, Robert Philp a clear-
thinking Conservative took the premiership and held
office for four years, when he was defeated
on certain financial proposals. In September 1903
Arthur Morgan accepted the leadership of a coalition of
labour members and seceders from Philp's party, and
carried on the Government through two of the most
critical years of the State's history. In January 1906
William Kidston, having established his reputation as

22 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Treasurer and party leader, took the premiership from
Morgan and formed the second Labour Ministry in
Queensland. Kidston's ministry lasted twenty-two
months. He led his party to victory during the 1907
general elections, but quarrelled with it the following
November and resigned office. During February 1908,
he returned to office as Premier, Chief Secretary, and
Vice-President of the Executive Council, and in 1909
formed a coalition with the remnants of the Philp party,
securing to himself the leadership of Parliament.

On February 18, 1908, Kidston formed a coalition
ministry with A. H. Barlow, which held office until Feb-
ruary 1911, when Kidston decided to retire from politics.
During this Parliament the University Act of 1909 was
passed 5 also the Mining on Private Lands Act of the
same year, and the Constitutional Reforms Act, which
severely limited the powers of the Legislative Council and
prepared the way for its abolition in 1922. Kidston's
great work for his State was the great railway scheme
whereby the State was to be gridironed by two parallel
lines of railway running north-south in the west from
Camooweal to Thargomindah, and in the east from
Cairns to Brisbane with four cross-bars east-west,
through Cunnamulla, Roma, Longreach, and Hughenden.

In 1911, D. F. Denham, who had held the office of
Secretary for Public Lands in the Kidston Ministry, took
over the Premiership with the additional offices of Chief
Secretary and Vice-President of the Executive Council.
Denham held the reins of Government until 1915 when
T. J. Ryan took over the office of Premier and formed
a ministry that lasted until 1919. In this Ryan Cabinet
appears the name of E. G. Theodore as Treasurer and
Secretary of Public Works.

In 1919, T. J. Ryan resigned the Premiership of
Queensland to enter the Federal Parliament, handing the
control of the Government to Theodore. During the

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 23

Theodore Ministry the Legislative Council was abolished
and has not since been restored. In 1925 Theodore re-
signed from the premiership and the State Parliament to
contest a seat in the Federal Parliament, handing the
premiership of the Labour Ministry, which had held office
since 1915, to W. N. Gillies, who had served under Ryan
and Theodore as Secretary for Agriculture and Stock.
Gillies held the premiership for only eight months and
then resigned, on accepting an appointment to the Queens-
land Industrial Arbitration Court. William McCormack
took the premiership of a reconstructed Labour Ministry.

THE PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT IN
WESTERN AUSTRALIA

WESTERN AUSTRALIA, for reason of its acceptance of
convicts and the consequent large sums of money ex-
pended in the colony by the Imperial Government, was
debarred from taking advantage of the self-government
Act of 1850. Twenty years later it demanded and
received representative government. In the year 1 878 the
"Cinderella" colony derided that she was entitled to
Responsible Government, and, through Sir Stephen H.
Parker in the Legislative Council, voiced her desires. His
motion brought the matter within the sphere of practical
politics, and in 1882 the Council asked the Colonial Office
on what terms autonomy would be granted. The answer
partly evaded the question, pointing out that a very large
proportion of the colony, particularly in the north, con-
sisted of Crown Lands more satisfactorily administered by
a colony directly under the Crown. The Office, however,
added a request to be served with a full statement of the
colony's affairs.

This answer was as favourable as the Council
expected. It prepared exhaustive tables and financial
returns and forwarded them to England. In 1884, the

24 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Governor, Sir Frederick Napier-Broome, was informed
by the Imperial authorities that Western Australia would
not be refused responsible government if, at the succeed-
ing elections for the Legislative Council, a general wish
to that end was expressed by the electors.

Up to this period, while there was a distinct feeling
in favour of self-government, the matter had not been
definitely referred to the electors as a matter of practical
politics. Now, with Lord Derby's despatch made public,
there grew a general desire for responsible government.
In 1888 public opinion had become so strong that in 1 890
an enabling Act was passed, and on October 21 of that
year responsible government for Western Australia was
proclaimed.

John Forrest was offered the first premiership and
on December 29, 1890, formed his first ministry. He
held office for eleven years, resigning to contest a seat in
the newly-created Federal Parliament. During his term
of office notable gold discoveries were made in the
colony and a great expansion of trade took place. To his
strong purpose and wide outlook during this period are
due the goldfields' water scheme, the Fremantle Har-
bour works, the development of the railway system to
the mining areas, and the liberal land legislation of the
colony. He was a great and consistent advocate of Fed-
eration and the East- West transcontinental railway the
latter even before Federation.

On his election to the Federal Parliament Forrest
was appointed Minister for Home Affairs in the Barton
Cabinet. On leaving the Western Australian Parliament
he handed over the premiership to George Throssell,
who had served under him as Commissioner for Crown
Lands. Throssell held office for only four months, when
he was deposed by George Leake, who in November 1901
gave way to A, E. Morgans.

Morgans held office for a bare month, when Leake

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 25

succeeded in defeating him. Leake in his turn held the
premiership for six months and then gave place to W. H.
James. In 1904, James was defeated by Henry Daglish,
who headed Western Australia's first Labour Ministry.
A year later Daglish, finding that he could not retain the
confidence of the party "bosses," resigned, his place being
taken by C. H. Rason. After the general elections in
1906 N. J. Moore accepted the office of Premier and
held together an uncertain party until 1910. He was
knighted in 1908.

Sir Newton Moore resigned from Parliament and
office in 1910 and took over the agent-generalship of the
colony in London. He handed the premiership to Frank
Wilson, who managed to carry on until 1911, when a
Labour Government, headed by John Scaddan, deposed
him. At the 1916 elections the New Nationalist party
was returned to power under Wilson's leadership. This
Government had lasted eleven months when H. B.
Lef roy, the leader of the old "die-hard" conservatives of
the state, assumed the premiership and carried on until
1919. Lef roy resigned from politics and retired into
private life in 1919. He had been a member of the For-
rest and Throssell ministries of 1898 and 1901, but had
not held office from those dates until offered the
premiership in 1917.

When Sir H. B. Lefroy resigned the premiership it
was offered to H. P. CoJebatch, who formed a cabinet and
undertook the Government for one month. The cabinet
was then reconstructed under the premiership of Sir
James Mitchell, with Colebatch as Minister for Health*
This ministry lasted until 1924, when, at the elections,
Philip Collier, at the head of the Labour Party, suc-
ceeded to the Government. At the general elections of
1927 Collier was again returned to power with a good
majority.

-26 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

THE PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT IN

TASMANIA

TASMANIA had responsible Government in 1856. In
December 1878, W. L. Crowther held the office of Pre-
mier. His previous experience of ministerial rank had
been in the Reibey ministry of 1876-77, when he had
been minister without portfolio.

Late in the year 1879 the Crowther Ministry was
defeated and William Robert Giblin formed a coalition
ministry, which lasted, mainly by absorbing successive
leaders of the opposition, until 1884. In that year John
Adye Dougles, a Hobart lawyer, formed a ministry, and
held the premiership until he resigned to become the
first Agent-General for the colony, Philip O. Fysh was
then commissioned to form a ministry and selected as his
Minister for Lands and Works E. N. C. Braddon, who
in later years took a great part in the foundation of Fed-
eration. This was the second Fysh Ministry and lasted
until August 1 892.

Federation was the great political question in the
island colony during the year 1889, and Fysh, though
he favoured Federation, allowed his Attorney-General,
A. L Clark, to take the lead in the work for this cause,
while he interested himself in the more modest measure
of tariff reciprocity with New South Wales. Another
champion of Federation in the Fysh Ministry was Edward
N. C. Braddon, later to be responsible for the much-
debated "Braddon Clause" under which the Federal
Government was required to pay the States three-quarters
of the net revenue collected from Customs and Excise.

Henry Dobson replaced the Fysh Ministry on
August 17, 1892, and became Premier, with Adye Doug-
las and N. E. Lewis as colleagues. He held office until
April 14, 1894, when he was ousted by Braddon, who,
taking the premiership, succeeded in retaining office until

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 27

1899. In that year he resigned and handed the position
to Neil E. Lewis. During his term as Premier of Tas-
mania, Lewis was elected to the Federal Parliament and
held office in the Federal Ministry while still acting as
Premier of his State. After holding the dual position
for four months he resigned his Federal office and re-
mained Premier of Tasmania until April 1903, when W.
B. Propsting took over the reins. John W. Evans suc-
ceeded Propsting in a re-organised ministry in 1904, and
carried on the government until 1909.

Between 1 909 and 1916 Tasmania had a succession of
five placid governments, of which the longest lived re-
tained office for two and a half years. In June, 1909, Sir
N. E. Lewis succeeded in defeating Evans, but the ex-
Federal Minister had enjoyed office for only four months
when he was deposed by John Earle, who led an entirely
new team of Ministers.

Earle was Premier only for seven days and then fell
before that astute politician, Sir N. E. Lewis, who again
assumed office as Premier to hold it until June 1912.
On that date Lewis retired from politics, leaving to A. E.
Solomon, who had held the offices of Attorney-General
and Mines and Education under him, the task of re-form-
ing the cabinet and carrying on the Government. Solo-
mon's term of office lasted until April 1914, when Earle
again succeeded in capturing the Government to hold
power for two years and a week. In 1916, Sir W. H.
Lee won the general elections and continued in the pre-
miership until 1922.

At that date J. B. Hayes, who had held the office of
Minister for Lands in the Lee Cabinet, assumed the pre-
miership,' with Lee as Treasurer and Minister for Agri-
culture. After one year another reshuffle of portfolios
brought Lee to the head of a Government with a small
ministry of five two members of which held three
offices each, and two of them two offices each, the remain-

28 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

ing member of the cabinet being without office. In 1923
Joseph A. Lyons formed a Labour ministry which lasted
until the elections of 1928, when it was defeated.

THE PROGRESS OF AUSTRALIA TOWARDS
FEDERATION

A DESIRE for Federation arose among Australians soon
after Victoria was separated from the mother colony,
New South Wales. The establishment of a new colony
further westwards (South Australia) accentuated the de-
sire for some central body to co-ordinate the work of the
group. In 1846, Sir Charles Fitzroy, then Governor-
General of New South Wales, complained to the Colonial
Office of "the time that must elapse before the decision
of Her Majesty's Government upon measures passed by
the legislatures of these colonies can be obtained," and
he suggested the establishment of "some superior func-
tionary to whom all measures adopted by the local legis
latures, affecting the general interests of the mother
country, the Australian colonies, or their intercolonial
trade, should be submitted by the officers administering the
several Governments, before their own assent is given to
them."

Replying to Governor Fitzroy, Earl Grey stated:
"Some measure will also be devised for enabling the
several Australian colonies to co-operate with each other
in the enactment of such laws as may be necessary for re-
gulating the interests common to those possessions collec-
tively." Later in the same despatch he refers to "that
part of the contemplated Act of Parliament which will
relate to the creation of a Central Legislative Authority
for the whole of the Australian colonies," The time for
such "Central Legislative Authority" was not ripe. Only
a few of the leading men in the several colonies favoured
the idea of a central authority. The general body of pub-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 29

lie opinion had not considered it. But the idea was firmly
fixed in the minds of the Imperial authorities, for in the
bill that was passed separating Victoria from the mother
colony, provision was made for a general assembly on
the lines laid down in the Committee of the Privy Coun-
cil's report, which stated: "we commend that the General
Assembly should consist of the Governor-General and of
a single House, to be called the House of Delegates. The
House of Delegates should be composed of not less than
twenty nor more than thirty members. They should be
elected by the Legislatures of the different Australian
colonies."

The first mention of a Federal Parliament is made in
a memorandum attached to a draft bill submitted to an
intercolonial conference in January 1881. In it the fol-
lowing positions were assumed as not open to debate:
"(1) that the time is not come for the construction of a
Federal Constitution, with an Australian Federal Parlia-
ment; (2) that the time is come when a number of mat-
ters of much concern to all the colonies might be dealt
with more effectually by some Federal authority than by
the colonies separately; (3) that an organization which
would lead men to think in the direction of Federation
and accustom the public mind to Federal ideals, would be
the best preparation for the foundation of Federal Go
vernment."

The sensational annexation of southern New Guinea
by the Mcllwraith Government of Queensland in 1883,
and the Imperial Government's repudiation of it
followed by the occupation of the northern half of the
island by the German Empire brought Federation closer.
Not only every colony of Australia, but New Zealand
and Fiji upheld the Queensland Government's action.
An intercolonial conference, which met in Sydney on
November 28, 1883, decided that a Federal Australasian
Council should be created, and a bill drafted by Premier

30 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Griffith of Queensland was adopted. The bill was not a
good one; the legislative powers created were very scanty - y
there was no executive power provided, and no control
over revenue or expenditure. The proposed Council
could only legislate by, and for, such separate colonies as
desired it to do so in each particular case.

The political leaders in New South Wales stood
aloof from the bill. Sir Henry Parkes referred to the
proposed Council as a "ricketty body." Sir John Robert-
son and others frankly expressed suspicion of the aims
of the colonies favouring the Council. On every side the
bill was declared to be premature, ill-conceived, and in-
effective.

The Griffith Bill was adopted by several of the colo-
nies, but New South Wales and New Zealand stood aside
from all participation in it. The last meeting, in 1899,
was an expiring effort, for already the Commonwealth
Bill of 1 891 was in general discussion. Sir Henry Parkes's
famous Tenterfield speech of October 24, 1889, was the
Council's requiem. After that the road lay open for the
New South Wales statesman to carry forward the agita-
tion for real Federation.

The chief political question between the years 1889
and 1898 was the form Federation should take. While
a majority of the people of the various colonies were in
favour of Federation as an abstract ideal, they were
jealous of their independent privileges. Federation, when
it came within the realm of practical politics, had to be
careful not to infringe in any way the liberty of action en-
joyed by the various colonies in purely domestic affairs.

In reality Federation was not a party question,,
but the temper of the times was such that no question
of continent-wide importance could be debated without
the party aspect coming strongly to the fore. But
for this, Federation would have been an accomplished
fact long before 1900, and it ^as only when the people

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 31

took the question out o the hands of the various conflict-
ing politicians, that finality came within view.

In 1889 Parkes, labouring under great difficulties,
re-opened the question of Federation, to receive very
evasive replies from the leaders in other colonies; some
of them openly objected to his leadership on the ques-
tion, in view of his previous action regarding the Federal
Council. But the New South Wales statesman persisted,
and in 1890 he succeeded in calling another Intercolonial
Conference to consider ways and means of preparing a
Federal Constitution. That Conference prepared the way
for the holding of the first Australasian Federal Conven-
tion of 1891. The members were chosen from the Par-
liaments of the colonies and represented the best political
intelligence of the continent.

The Convention of 1891 adopted the first draft con-
stitution a document which, while not accepted by the
colonies, was the basis on which later Conventions worked.
The details of the constitution, while debated in Conven-
tion, were the work of a Committee consisting of Samuel
Griffith, afterwards Chief Justice of Australia; Edmund
Barton, afterwards first Prime Minister; Inglis Clark,
later a Tasmanian judge; and Charles Cameron Kingston,
who became in after years a distinguished minister of the
Commonwealth.

When the draft came before the Parliament of New
South Wales it met with bitter opposition, although Sir
Henry Parkes fought hard to have it adopted. G. H.
Reid, a member of the Convention, led a strong parlia-
mentary opposition and denounced the constitution as the
work of "the great ambitious statesman of Australia." He
claimed that it was not sufficiently democratic, and ob-
jected to the clauses concerning trade and finance. The
feeling of opposition penetrated Parkes's cabinet, and the
great leader at last came to feel that he could do no good
by persevering with it. The defeat of the constitution in

32 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

New South Wales led to its defeat in other colonies,
since it was generally considered that any Federation in
which New South Wales did not take a part must fail.
Again it appeared that the cause of Federation had been
defeated. In October 1891 Parkes retired into private
life, and all hope of Federation appeared to be lost. But
in the Dibbs ministry that succeeded thei c were two men
who were later to take a great part in the fight for Feder-
ation. In ,the 1891 elections Barton stood for East Sydney
as a Federationist and joined the Dibbs Cabinet as Minis-
ter for Home Affairs and the acknowledged leader of the
Federationist Party a position which he assumed at the
request of Parkes. In the following year Barton suc-
ceeded in carrying in the Assembly a pro-federation reso-
lution; yet he found his position untenable, as "certain
colleagues were always strewing tacks in my path." In
1893 he resigned office so as to have full liberty to carry
on, outside the Cabinet, the campaign for the 1891 Feder-
ation Bill.

The other man who came forward as a champion of
Federation, after the retirement of Parkes, was George
Houston Reid. He had been a bitter opponent of the
1891 bill when brought into the New South Wales Par-
liament. But recognizing that Federation must eventu-
ally come, he set to work to give it as democratic an out-
look as possible.

The matter now entered on a new phase. The move-
ment was taken out of the political arena and submitted
to the people. Popular leagues were formed to advance
the common cause, and at a conference of the Leagues,
held at Corowa, a new plan of campaign was initiated on
the suggestion that the movement for Federation should
come from the people; that a constitution should be
drafted by a Convention elected directly by the people;
that the Constitution, when drafted, should be submitted
directly to the people for acceptance or rejection; and

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 33

that, if the Constitution were accepted at the Referen-
dum by two or more colonies, it should be passed by the
Imperial Parliament and become law.

Ten representatives from each colony except Queens-
land, whose Parliament did not pass the Enabling Bill
for the election of the delegates, came to the Conven-
tion 1897-98, which prepared the Constitution of the
Commonwealth of Australia. The representatives from
the other colonies, except Western Australia, were elected
directly by the people. The Western Australian dele-
gates were chosen by that colony's Parliament, which
feared that, if a popular vote was taken, the goldfields,
where the Federation cause was very strong, would swamp
the voting power of the agriculturist.

The Convention held three sessions in Adelaide,
Sydney, and Melbourne. Its task was made easier
through having the draft bill of the 1 891 constitution as a
model, and a comparison of the two constitutions show
some striking similarities and differences. Substantially
the new Constitution followed that of 1891, but with a
widening of scope and liberalising of powers. When the
Constitution came before the British Parliament a cele-
brate4 English statesman spoke of it as "a monument of
legislative competency": yet it was not the work of prac-
tised statesmen but of elected delegates of the people at
large.

The tide "Commonwealth" was first suggested by
Sir Henry Parkes at the Constitutional Committee of the
1891 Convention. The title was at first rejected, but
later, was again proposed by Alfred Deakin, a Victorian
delegate, and carried in the Committee by a majority of
one vote.

Again in the full Convention exception was taken
to the tide "Commonwealth" as having too Cromwellian
a flavour, but Edmund Barton drove the word to adoption
with his scholarly eloquence. Finally the Convention

34 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

adopted the title by 26 votes to 13. By the time the
1897-8 Convention was in session the title had caught
the popular imagination there being only one objector
in the Convention. "Commonwealth," stated Edmund
Barton, "is thq grandest and most stately name by which
a great association o self-governing people can be charac-
terized. "

The days from the end of 1 898 to July 1900 are the
most pregnant and interesting in the history of Australia.
Into those eighteen months were crowded many political
happenings, amid a whirl of tense excitement.

The enabling Acts, under which the delegates to the
Convention of 1 897-8 met, provided that when the Fed-
eration Act had been drafted it must be submitted to the
people, and that, to secure adoption, stated majorities had
to be obtained in certain states 5 in other states a bare
majority was sufficient.

But after the Federation Act had been drafted, and
almost immediately before the voting, the enemies of
Federation, introduced into the Parliament of New South
Wales a bill requiring a minimum total of 120,000 votes
in that State to secure the adoption of the Federation Bill.
Considering the population of the colony at the time, this
number was almost impossible to attain.

At this stage Reid, the then Premier of New South
Wales, adopted an ambiguous attitude towards Feder-
ation. At the Convention, and in the country, he had
worked for Federation j now, faced with a measure that
was designed to make Federation almost unattainable, he
became very indefinite. A clever politician, he under-
stood that Federation had the favour of the people, and,
for that reason if for no other, he would not oppose itj
yet, faced with this demand for a total of 120,000 votes
in the colony in favour of Federation, he did not object.
Instead, he suggested that a minimum of 80,000 votes
in favour of the measure should be required in place of

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 35

the 50,000 declared in the enabling bill. This number,
while not making Federation impossible, was sufficiently
high to make the passage of the bill difficult.

In support of Reid's attitude in regard to the mini-
mum vote it can be claimed that there was in the colony
a strong and influential body of opinion that certain
clauses of the bill were not favourable to New South
Wales, the oldest and wealthiest of the colonies. Reid
and many others thought that New South Wales should
contain the seat of Federal Government, although he did
not go so far as to claim, with Sir W. J. Ljnc, that it
should be Sydney. The financial clauses did not meet
with whole-hearted approval, many authorities contend-
ing that under them New South Wales would bear a dis-
proportionate share of the cost of a Federal Administra-
tion. In one of his public speeches Reid set out in detail
his objections to the Federation Bill, and then left his
hearers aghast by stating that he could not "become a
deserter from the cause" and would record his personal
vote in favour. His attitude on this occasion has passed
into history and dictionary use through the famous "Yes-
No" cartoon of Sydney's Bulletin.

Reid's ambiguous attitude secured the rejection of
the draft Federation Bill by the people of New South
Wales not because the bill failed to secure a distinct
majority, but because the required number of votes
80,000 was not attained. The voting, however, must
have surprised Reid, for it was very far in advance of the
total voting required by the Enabling Act and only 8405
votes short of the 80,000 votes fixed by Reid's later
measure.

Though Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania had
secured the votes necessary to bring tederation into exist-
ence, they considered it impolitic to move any further in
the direction of Federation without New South Wales.
Then arose the question: what alterations would induce

36 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

New South Wales to accept the draft Bill? The Vic-
torian Premier, Turner, summoned a conference of State
Premiers to meet in Melbourne. At that gathering the
colonies originally supporting Federation were joined by
J- R. Dickson, the Queensland Premier an earnest that
five of the six colonies would now co-operate. Seven
amendments to the draft Bill were prepared at this Pre-
miers' Conference three dealing with the financial prob-
lems 5 one defining that the Federal Capital should be in
New South Wales, but not within one hundred miles of
Sydney, and that, pending the building of the Federal
Capital, the Parliament should sit in Melbourne} and the
last defining the powers of the future Federal Parlia-
ments to deal with State boundaries.

At the Second Referendum, held on June 20, 1899,
New South Wales voted 107,420 for, and 82,741 against,
Federation. The Victorian vote on this occasion was much
larger than at the first referendum, and the "No" vote
was greatly reduced. Tasmania was nearly solid in favour,
only 79 "No" votes being recorded. Queensland voted
almost 50-50j Western Australia did not vote or take
any part in the proceedings.

The draft Federation Bill, having weathered all
storms in Australia, had now to face the bufferings of the
Imperial Parliament. Here only one rock threatened dis-
aster. The draft bill conferred on the High Court of
Australia exclusive jurisdiction in cases involving the in-
terpretation of the constitution, and gave powers to the
Federal Parliament to limit matters of law on which
appeal might lie to the Privy Council the highest Court
of Appeal in the Empire. The English law authorities
objected to this "limiting power" being conferred on the
Parliament, on the grounds that the Privy Council was
a bond between the various entities of the Empire and
that appeal to the Privy Council secured uniformity in
interpretation of law throughout the Empire on matters

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 37

of Imperial and commercial concern. They were willing
to agree that the Australian High Court (unless it gave
leave to appeal to the Privy Council) should be the sole
interpreter of the Constitution and of the limits of the
powers of the Commonwealth and the States.

After much discussion between the Australian dele-
gates in London and the English law authorities, the
matter was referred to a conference of Premiers sitting in
Melbourne, and they decided that, if a choice had to be
made between the "Appeal Clauses" and postponement,
"the latter course would be more objectionable to Aus-
tralians generally than the former." The "appeal clause"
was therefore amended to suit the English law officers.

The Australian Federation Bill came before the
Imperial Parliament in May 1900, under the sponsorship
of Joseph Chamberlain, and by the following July had
passed both Houses of the Imperial Parliament. A few
days after the Act emerged from the House of Lords,
and before Queen Victoria's assent had been declared to
it on September 17, 1900, Western Australia, by a refer-
endum majority vote of 44,800 to 19,691, joined her
sister States in making Federation a complete entity on
the Australian continent.

THE PROGRESS OF GOVERNMENT UNDER
FEDERAL PARLIAMENT

EDMUND BARTON was the first Prime Minister of Aus-
tralia. He had been Minister for Home Affairs in the
Dibbs Ministry of New South Wales and had resigned
that office to devote himself entirely to the cause of Feder-
ation. The Ministry which he formed comprised no less
than five ex-premiers of States: Sir John Forrest held the
office of Minister for Home Affairs, and had been a
former Premier of Western Australia 5 Sir George Tur-
ner, the Treasurer, had been a Premier of Victoria 5 Sir

38 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

P. O. Fysh, who accepted the office of Postmaster-
General, was ex-Premier of Tasmania 5 C. C. Kingston,
who held the portfolio of Trade and Customs, had been
a Premier of South Australia. The fifth was Sir W. J.
Lyne, a former Premier of New South Wales, who took
the office of Trade and Customs when Kingston resigned
through disagreement with his leader regarding the some-
what drastic Arbitration Bill which he brought forward,
extending Federal control over the railways of the States.

There were three parties in the first Federal Parlia-
ment. The Government, strongly protectionist, led by
the Prime Minister 5 a strong free-trade opposition led by
Reid 5 and the Labour Party under the leadership of John
Christian Watson, a fine speaker and a sound tactician.

From the first-days of the new Parliament Labour
assumed a prominent position. At first, unable to take
the reins of Government, it supported the legislation that
fitted in with the party's declared platform in other
matters giving a benevolent neutrality, except where it
saw Labour principles involved. It was the Labour Party
that held Barton in office during his term as Prime Min-
ister and passed through the Houses his policy of pre-
venting the coloured races of Asia from coming into Aus-
tralia, and of clearing the kanakas out of the Queensland
cane-fields. The first measure caused some discussion
with the Imperial authorities, the rulers and protectors of
many coloured races. The crux was solved by the "lan-
guage test" device, whereby the Inspectors were able to
"test" immigrants in a language with which they were
not familiar.

The first breach in the Federal Parliament happened
when Cabinet declined to allow Kingston to bring in an
Arbitration Bill which would have extended Federal con-
trol over the railways of the States, Kingston resigned,
and Sir W. J. Lyne took over the portfolio of Trade and

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 39

Customs. Two months later Barton himself resigned in
answer to a call to the High Court bench.

On September 4, 1903, Alfred Deakin, who had led
his party to victory at the elections, accepted the office of
Prime Minister and formed his cabinet from among his
former colleagues in the Barton Ministry, substituting for
Sir J. R. Dickson and Neil E. Lewis, Austin Chapman
and Senator Thomas Playford. To this Parliament
Labour was returned with a large access of power, having
twenty-four members in a House of Representatives
of seventy-five, and fifteen Senators out of thirty-six.
Deakin, who led the strongest single party in the House
of Representatives, could only number twenty-seven
supporters, while the official opposition numbered twenty-
four the^same number as that of the Labourites.

Deakm's first ministry came to grief over the same
Arbitration and Conciliation Bill which had marked the
decline of the Barton Ministry. Deakin refused to accept
the clause giving State civil servants access to the Federal
Arbitration Courts. Labour-leader Watson and his fol-
lowers insisted on the inclusion of the clause, and, backed
by a section of the opposition, carried their point against
the Government. Deakin answered with his resignation.

Watson formed the first Labour Ministry in April
1904, and by the following August was back again on the
cross-benches. His programme of legislation included
the much debated Arbitration Bill, a measure to establish
a tobacco monopoly to provide funds for Old Age Pen-
sions, and one to bring State employees within the scope
of the. Federal Arbitration Act. The last proposal again
wrecked a ministry. Deakin supported Reid in a suc-
cessful attack on the Government, and in August Reid
headed a coalition of his own followers and the old
Deakin-Barton party. Deakin himself stood out of the
coalition, and, while not assisting, did not actively oppose
the Reid Government. Eleven months later Deakin with-

40 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

drew his passive support from Reid and defeated the
Government, resuming the Prime Ministership with a
small personal following, but with heavy backing from
the Labour benches.

During the life of this Ministry Deakin succeeded
in passing a strong protectionist tariff, providing prefer-
ence for Great Britain. Among his other works, he
slightly relaxed the restrictions on alien immigiation and
established old age pensions. In addition he passed a
series of commercial bills affecting copyrights, trade-
marks, trusts, and secret commissions. He formulated
military defence measures and negotiated with the British
Admiralty on a local defence scheme. During 1907 he
took part in the Imperial conference in London, after-
wards touring Great Britain on the question of mutual
fiscal preference.

With Deakin in power, entirely dependent on
Labour's support, and Reid leading a disorganised opposi-
tion, Andrew Fisher, who had succeeded Watson as
Labour Leader, thought the time had come when his
party should carry on the work of the country. On the
floor of the House he formally intimated to the Govern-
ment that Labour could no longer give it support. Deakin
thereupon resigned, and Fisher took the office of Prime
Minister, only to find that he had to rely on Deakin and
his followers for the votes necessary to avoid defeat at
the hands of the Reid opposition. Labour's second at-
tempt at Government lasted seven months.

In forming a Ministry it is possible that Fisher
thought the line of cleavage between the Reid and Deakin
parties was far wider than between either of those parties
and his own. Under that opinion he had accepted office,
determined to play his opponents one against the other;
but in this he reckoned without the one-time Labour
politician, Joseph Cook. Quite unexpectedly negotiations
were entered upon between Deakin and Cook, and after

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA ^

some hesitation Deakin decided to throw in his lot with
his former enemies, whose freetrade fiscal policy had
dwindled almost to an unattainable ideal.

The "fusion" was the end of the Fisher Parliament,
On June 2, 1909, Deakin found himself again in office
as Prime Minister, with Cook holding the portfolio of
Defence and Forrest as Treasurer. But in spite of the
number of free-traders in his new party and cabinet
Deakin succeeded in dominating the situation, and before
the general elections of 1910 he passed a measure cer-
tainly in somewhat imperfect form for compulsory mili-
tary defence. In addition he concluded arrangements
with the British Admiralty for the creation of an Aus-
tralian squadron. He also established the office of High
Commissioner to England.

The general elections of 1910 returned to power
Fisher and a Labour Government, with a good working
majority. During the three years of this Government
Fisher was responsible for the transference of the North-
ern Territory from South Australia to the Federal Go-
vernment. He also passed through Parliament the
measure establishing the Commonwealth Bank. Other im-
portant measures brought forward by him were permis-
sion for the Federal Treasury to issue its own bank-notes,,
superseding those issued by the private banks $ the imposi-
tion of a Federal Land Tax 5 the construction of the East-
West Transcontinental Rail way 5 and the creation of the.
Interstate Commission. He finalised the work which
Deakin had begun for the establishment of an Australian
naval squadron and the development of the military train-
ing system. At the elections held during June 1 9 1 3 he was-
defeated at the polls by a small majority.

Immediately prior to the 1913 elections Deakin de-
cided to retire from politics, leaving the leadership of the
"fusion" in the hands of Cook. Winning the govern-
ment by a very small majority, Cook formed a ministry,

42 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

but retained office for only fifteen months, when he de-
cided to appeal to the electors. But the political pendu-
lum swung to Fisher, who assumed office just after the
commencement of the Great War. Fisher entered whole-
heartedly into the work of organizing Australia on a
war footing, dispatching the first contingent of Australian
soldiers which had been promised by Cook and
maintaining the Australian effort up to October 1915,
when he resigned office and his seat in the Federal Par-
liament to take the post of High Commissioner in Lon-
don,

William Morris Hughes became leader of the Fed-
eral Labour Party when Fisher resigned. For many years
he had been the power behind Fisher in the Labour cabi-
nets, holding the office of Attorney-General in Fisher's
second and third ministries.

Thirteen months after he took over the Prime Minis-
tership Hughes had to face a crisis within his party.
Fisher had promised the British Government Australia's
last man and last shilling. Man-power was urgently
needed and Hughes proposed conscription. A section of
the Labour Party followed his lead, but the great major-
ity of the party outside parliament opposed conscription.
In consequence there resulted a split in the party, and the
malcontents, gaining control of the "machine, 7 '* expelled
the "conscriptionists."

An arrangement with the Liberal opposition in 1917
resulted in the formation of the first Nationalist Govern-
ment under the Prime Ministership of Hughes, with Cook
as Minister for the Navy and Forrest as Treasurer. In
January 1918 Hughes led back to office a second War Min-
istry, which lasted nearly four years and experienced
several reshuffles of offices. In its four years of life it con-
tained four treasurers; four ministers for Trade and Cus-
toms 5 three members in turn held the offices of Vice-
President of the Executive Council, Minister for Works,

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 43

and Home and Territories. There were three Postmasters-
General and nine honorary ministers.

During the first few months of this Parliament's life
the Prime Minister was away from Australia, in England
and France. He attended meetings of the Imperial Cabi-
net and took a prominent part in the meetings of the "Big
Four" and in the conferences at Versailles which resulted
in the Versailles Treaty and the birth of the League of
Nations.

The new Parliament met under the final stress of
the Great War. During the 1918 elections the Central
European Powers were foreshadowing the great offensive
of the following March. The first days were lived under
the shadow of the apparently irresistible German attack
which again and again broke the Allies 5 defence yet never
succeeded in demoralising them an attack that wore it-
self out and resulted in the final retreat and the applica-
tion for the Armistice.

The task before the new Parliament was appalling
in magnitude. It had to turn the steps of a people long
organised for war into the paths of peace* It had to re-
organise a nation bled nearly white of its manhood and
financial strength. It had to take the remnants of the
41 6,809 men who had been sent across the seas and trained
in the arts of killing, and to blend them into a community
of peace and work. It had to take those who remained
of the 226,073 casualties their wives, children, and other
dependents, and shelter them from want and suffering.

And there were no precedents to guide them in this
work. They could not ask for help from overseas, for
in Europe the nations lay gasping for strength, hardly
yet able to realise that the long nightmare of blood and
horrors had passedj that before them lay the mighty task
of binding up their bleeding wounds as they staggered
forward on the eternal march of years to their ultimate
destinies.

44 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Within a few months of the outbreak of war, and
right up to the end of the last Hughes Parliament, the
great and most pressing problem was the repatriation of
the returned troops. In 1918 a Commonwealth Depart-
ment of Repatriation was formed under Senator E. D.
Millen, entering on its formidable task with the provision
for the 44,671 men who had been by then repatriated.
By the end of June 1920, when practically the whole of
the Australian Imperial Force had returned to Australia,
all but 2037 hospital cases and 6049 men had been re-
turned to civilian life.

It was quickly realised that there was no official
knowledge to indicate what should, or should not, be done
in the task of absorbing the soldiers into civil occupations.
At first a wave of emotional impulse swept over the coun-
try, and the Government appeared willing to stand aside
and leave the initiative to voluntary effort such as was
expressed in the New South Wales Australia Day Fund,
which raised 800,000, and in similar efforts in other
states. But it had to be recognised that, however great
the voluntary effort, the problem was one that only a
Government could tackle. This led to the appointment
of a Federal War Committee, representative of all parties
of the Houses of Parliament. This Committee appointed
"War Councils" in each State, composed of members
from the State Parliaments and the commercial, industrial,
and civil interests. The Councils kept registers of all the
discharged men 5 collected and distributed funds 5 found
positions for men able to take employment $ registered
men desirous of settling on the land, and notified the
various Lands Departments; formed through the States
local bodies to act as auxiliaries to the Councils j and as-
sisted men, as they settled on the land, to bring their
holdings into quick reproduction. These State Councils
also undertook the task of looking after dependents.

In May 1917 the Commonwealth Government passed

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 45

the Soldiers' Repatriation Fund Act, providing for a
Board of Trustees from members of all Parliamentary
parties, with the Prime Minister ex-officio Chairman. Yet
this Act did not bring into existence any funds for the
gigantic work it was to undertake, or for the work the
Federal War Committee and its subordinate bodies had
been successfully undertaking. It still left the necessary
money to be provided by voluntary contributions.

At the Conference of Premiers and Lands Ministers
in the following January, the Trustees submitted recom-
mendations for the control of all activities except quali-
fications as to land, which directly concerned the various
State Governments by the Commonwealth. They also
submitted a plan of the work which should be under-
taken. These were accepted by the Conference. Later
the Trustees advised the Prime Minister that the Depart-
ment should be administered by Commissioners.

The Australian Soldiers' Repatriation Act provided
for assistance to the men, nurses, and their dependents.
It gave as a definition of "Australian Soldier" any Aus-
tralian who had served in the military and naval forces,
provided that he or she could prove domicile in Australia.
Responsibility for administration was vested in the Min-
ister. He had, to advise him, an honorary Board of seven
members} in each State an honorary Board of seven was
created, to deal with the Commonwealth Board of seven
members j and under the States' Boards was a network
of .local committees covering the Commonwealth. The
Executive side of the Department was represented by
a Comptroller, with a< Deputy-Comptroller in each State.
Again Parliament did not make adequate provision for
the necessary funds j in fact the various Boards could
not estimate their requirements in that direction. It was
finally decided to formulate a scheme, and leave Parlia-
ment to meet the financial obligations as they fell due.

With much discussion and many disagreements a

46 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

scheme of work was at last prepared. Later the Comp-
troller was displaced by a Commission of three, subject
to the Minister, with, in each State, a Deputy-Comptroller
whose business was the superintendence of the offices es-
tablished, at first in the capital cities, and later extended
to the more populous centres. These offices were staffed
throughout by returned soldiers.

Soon after the war ended, the Department assumed
responsibility for all medical treatment, and established
a number of hospitals and institutions. To care for the
totally and partially injured men and women, hostels
amid pleasant surroundings and properly equipped were
established in the various States. Special sanatoria were
arranged for tuberculous and mental cases.

The Commonwealth expenditure on Repatriation,
up to the end of June 1925, amounted to 154,139,106;
war pensions, 51,100,382; general benefits,
18,411,785; houses, 22,153,787; land settlement,
35,001,941; war gratuities, 27,471,211. The pen-
sioners (soldiers and dependents) totalled 244,597, classi-
fied as follows: soldiers 72,128; wives, 50,106; children,
84,317; widows, 6453; widowed mothers, 8943; other
mothers, 17,463; fathers, 3308; sisters and brothers,
872; others, 1187.

At the above mentioned date 25,721 men had com-
pleted courses of training and there were still 1387 men
in training. The total cost of training amounted to
4,827,552. Employment applications numbered
246,734, the incidental cost, including sustenance pay-
ments and advances to States and municipalities being
3,406,372. For medical treatment 2,928,688 had been
paid. The Commonwealth had settled 34,995 men on
the land at a cost of 35,001,941.

In 1 922 the General Elections for the Commonwealth
Parliament were held and resulted in a win for the Govern-
ment. Although on the appeal to the country Hughes'

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 47

led the party, the spoils of office were not to be his. The
war had passed $ the sense of common danger before a
powerful and aggressive foe had passed, and the old pas -
sions of politics were in the ascendant, assuming the pro-
portions they had held in pre-war years. A new party,
the Country Party, had come into being. The party held
very strong affiliations with the old Liberal (now Na-
tional) Party, yet was opposed to it on land policies and
the question of the needs of the country districts as
against the requirements of the cities and towns.

For more than half of his long reign as Prime Min-
ister of Australia Hughes had had but a very small per-
sonal following. His strength, in Government, lay in
the fact that there was not a man ready and able to dis-
possess him* He had ruled over Ministries composed
mainly of men who before 1914 were his political oppo-
nents. Now, when an era of peace dawned and men's
thoughts turned to home affairs, there were many who
sought and planned the downfall of a Prime Minister
who had proved somewhat arbitrary.

Into the new Parliament of 1923 came new per-
sonalities, two men especially, who were to have a great
influence on the future of Parliament and the political
parties. Stanley Melbourne Bruce had been elected to
Parliament at a by-election in 1918 and afterwards taken
into the Ministry. He had fought in the Gallipoli ad-
venture and had been wounded. Recovering, he had been
sent to France, where he had again been wounded. His
election to the Flinders seat in the Federal Parliament was
his first experience in politics. For three years he was a
private member$ then he accepted office in Hughes's Cabi
net as Treasurer. Little more than thirteen months later
he became Prime Minister of the 1923 Parliament.

The second man who brought a large influence to
bear on the first post-war Parliament was Dr Earle
Christmas Page. He had served through the war as

48 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

operating surgeon in the A.A.M.C., leaving his private
practice at Grafton (New South Wales) for the purpose.
In 1919 he was elected for Cowper to the Federal Par-
liament, and in 1920 was elected leader of the new
Country Party.

A strong section of the old Liberals in the new
Nationalist Party put forward Bruce as candidate for the
Prime Minister-ship. It was doubtful if even the influ-
ential and wealthy backing which supported Bruce would
have been alone sufficient to defeat Hughes j but the
intervention of Dr. Page at the head of his Country Party
put the issue beyond doubt. The coalition between the
Country Party and the old Liberal group backing Bruce
was too strong, and the young Australian soldier, with less
than a year's ministerial experience, became the new Prime
Minister of the Australian Common wen 1th.

The Bruce-Page Government of 1923-25 was re-
organised after the elections in the latter year with re-
markably few changes in the Cabinet and those only of
minor importance. The most important work taken in
hand by this Government was the laying out and building
of the Federal Capital City at Canberra.

From 1911, when the Federal Parliament had de-
cided to call for plans for a Federal Capital, until 1923,
little progress had been made towards the building of a
city. On March 12, 1913, building operations had been
officially initiated by the laying of foundation-stones of
a "Commencement Column" by the Governor-General,
Lord Denman, the Prime Minister, Andrew Fisher, and
the Minister for Home Affairs, King O'Malley. la
1913-14 a general survey of the site was made, and cer-
tain areas allotted for early development. Plans were
also laid for damming the Cotter River in order to pro-
vide a water-supply, and also for sewerage, electric-
power supplies, and road construction. But, perhaps
owing to war-time stringencies, no further steps were

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 49

taken. In 1920 opportunity was taken of the presence
of the Prince of Wales in Australia to lay the foundation-
stone of the Capitol. Again followed delays while an
advisory- committee of five engineering and architectural
experts reviewed what had been done and reported on
what should be the further progress in Australia's Capi-
tal

The Bruce-Page Ministry of 1923-25 made the first
progressive step towards a permanent home for the
Federal Parliament. The dual control by the department
of Home and Territories and that of Works was super-
seded in 1925 by a Commission of three members elected
for a term of five years and nominally under the control
of the Minister for Home and Territories, but really with
very wide powers emanating direct from Parliament.

This Commission was the outcome of an agitation
among members of Parliament to force on the building
of the Federal Capital. In 1922 it was decided by the
House of Representatives that the following Parliament
should sit at Canberra. During August 1923 the first
sod of the site of a provisional Parliament House was
turned and the building commenced in the following
January. The building was completed in May 1927 and
opened with great ceremony by the Duke of York on the
9th of that month. Since then the offices of Parliament
and the various administrative Departments of Govern-
ment have been transferred to Canberra, mainly during
the year 1928. Land within the Federal Capital is only
leasehold, and on December 12, 1924, the first auction
sale of city leaseholds was held, when 200 out of the 400
blocks offered for sale were disposed of. A second sale
was held on May 29, 1926. Prices ranged, for business
sites, from 6 to 150 per foot 5 for residential areas,
from 1 Os. to 6 1 6s. per foot.

The last Federal Elections were held in November
1928, when the Bruce-Page Government was returned to
office, though with a smaller majority.

50 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

THE PROGRESS OF AUSTRALIA THROUGH
THE GREAT WAR

ON the outbreak of the great war of 1914 a war which
involved nearly every country in the world the
Australian Government cabled to London an offer to place
the Australian navy under the orders of the Admiralty,
and to send "an expeditionary force of 20,000 men of any
suggested composition to any destination desired by the
Home Government." This offer was promptly accepted*
Volunteers quickly came forward, and within a few days
the numbers were complete, while many thousands of
volunteers were waiting for admission to other divisions
which it was confidently expected would be raised.

Except a small expeditionary force sent to German
New Guinea with the definite object of seizing and de-
stroying the wireless stations established at Rabaul, Yap,
and Nauru, the first troops left Australia, bound for
Europe, on November 1, 1914.

While these were en route, a rebellion broke out in
South Africa, and General Bridges, in command of the
A.I.F., was ordered to proceed to the Cape. However,
before he and his Australian troops could proceed to Cape
Town, General Botha had gained a complete victory and
Bridges's orders were then altered again. The Austra-
lian troops were landed in Egypt, to undergo training
there.

In Egypt the Australians were met by General Bird-
wood and his staff, and when further troops arrived from
Australia and from New Zealand, the collective body
was formed into "The Australian and New Zealand Army
Corps" from the initials of which the Headquarters
clerks evolved the now famous "ANZAC."

After a brief spell of fighting in repressing a small
rebellion in Egypt, the Anzacs were sent on the strangely

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 51

conceived, and ill-matured expedition to Gallipoli. The
landing was made at dawn on April 25, 1915, but through
many mysterious delays the Turks were able to organise
a strong opposition. After a few days it was seen that
the object aimed at was almost impossible of achievement*
Until August 6 every effort was made to consolidate the
British positions and put them in order for the attack on
the Turks' key-positions.

On August 6 the battle of Sari Bair was commenced
without that strengthening of the forces which the
value of the movements and objectives deserved and
which had been promised. From the first feint at Helles,
through the battle of Lone Pine and the unexpected at-
tacks from Ocean Beach and Suvla Bay, to the summit
of Chanak Bair, the troops struggled gallantly but hope-
lessly on, and, although the Anzacs held and consolidated
their ground^ all possible hope of full success slowly
vanished.

Yet Sir Ian Hamilton, who was in supreme com-
mand, would not relinquish the ground so dearly won
without another attempt to force a way through the enemy
to the key-positions above the Dardanelles. On August
21 began the final week's fighting which resulted in the
capture of Hill 60 and the renewed knowledge that any
fresh adventure must end only in disaster. Towards
the end of the month it became necessary to withdraw
the troops, now sadly depleted and in sore need of rest.
After an interval of inaction amid the rigours of winter
the evacuation of Gallipoli commenced.

The evacuation of the Gallipoli peninsula is certainly
one of the most brilliant military manoeuvres ever con-
ceived and accomplished. The scheme of withdrawal
stands to the credit of Brigadier-General C. B. B. White
and the execution to General Birdwood. Between De-
cember 8 and 20, some 80,000 men, 5000 horses, and
200 guns were withdrawn from Suvla and Anxac and

52 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

without raising among the enemy a suspicion of that in-
tention. Three weeks later the troops at Helles were
withdrawn with equal success and immunity.

The Australian troops were taken back to Egypt
for rest and reorganisation at the close of the year 1915,
the only fighting in which they were for some time subse-
quently engaged being in short desert expeditions against
the Senussi and other disaffected Bedouin tribes. Through
the rest of the winter and the following spring prepara-
tions were made to organise the now greatly increased
Australian forces for an offensive on the European western
front. Australia had offered an additional nine brigades.
Two new divisions were formed from the reinforcements
undergoing training in Egypt and the seasoned troops
from Gallipoli. A third division was in preliminary train-
ing in Australia. A complete reorganisation of the vari-
ous wings of the service was made from time to time, as
men became available and permitted expansion. From the
Anzac Mounted Division and the Camel Battalion was
evolved the Australian Mounted Division of 1917. The
Australian Flying Corps came into existence. Behind
the huge army of Southern Cross men there were formed,
in Egypt and England, efficient training bases.

Between March and June 1916, the four infantry
divisions in Egypt were transported to France, south-east
of Armentieres known as the "nursery sector." The
first attack by the Australian troops in France occurred on
July 19, south of the "nursery sector," towards Fromelles,
with the object of holding on that front certain German
reserves which might have been withdrawn to strengthen
the opposition to the forthcoming Anglo-French attack
along the Somme, where the position was becoming criti-
cal.

The Somme battle had been in progress three weeks
before Australian troops, being sent against the Pozieres
village, took part in it. For five weeks they fought to

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 53

gain and hold these positions, being ultimately successful,,
but losing some 25,000 men. During September and
October the 1st Anzac Corps was moved to the Ypres
salient for what practically amounted to garrison duty;
and in November it was returned again to the old Somme
battlefield, where the long, dreary European winter, with
its wet, snow, and bitter cold, took severe toll of Aus-
tralian lives.

It was not until February 1917 that there were signs
of activity on the long front. Then the Australian troops
on the Bapaume Road reported that Germans before them
were retreating, and the British General Headquarters
ordered a reconnaissance along the whole front. During
the last days of February there was severe fighting. The
8th Brigade of the 5th Division (Australian) entered
Bapaume on March 17 and, advancing quickly, captured
Beaumetz village, lost it, and recaptured it on March
21 and the succeeding days. On March 26, Lagnicourt
was taken, and Noreuil, Louveral, and Doignies on April
2. Hernies, Boursies, and Demicourt fell on April 9.
A few days later the 1st Anzac Corps drew up before the
new main German position the famous Hindenburg line.

On April 9 the British command commenced an at-
tack east of Arras, and on the llth the 4th Australian
Division was sent against Bullecourt, the new and un-
familiar "tanks" being used in place of the usual artillery
preparation. Through the breakdown of the tanks the
attack failed. Four days later the Germans counter-
attacked and broke through the thinly-held Australian
lines. A wonderfully stubborn defence by the Austra-
lian defence-posts checked the enemy and gave opportun-
ity for a well-timed counter-attack, which drove the
enemy back to their own wire, where they were almost
decimated by Australian rifle and machine-gun fire.

During a second and mightier effort, commencing
on May 3, the Australians were sent against Queant and

54 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Bullecourt, on the right flank. They managed to enter
the Hindenburg line, but secured only a precarious hold
until, after nine days 3 fighting, Bullecourt was captured.
On the 15th they repulsed with great slaughter a counter-
attack by the Prussian Guards Division. At the end of
May the 1st Anzac Corps was withdrawn for rest.

For nearly two years Australian, British, and Cana-
dian tunnellers had been working for an attack under
the Messines-Wytscharte Ridge and the German front
line. The biggest of all the mines prepared for the
Messines battle was at Hill 60, where continuous fighting
had taken place underground. These mines were fired
just before dawn on June 7, obliterating local enemy
trenches. The assault was carried out with complete suc-
cess and with surprisingly little loss, and the Ridge and
reverse slopes were captured over their entire length.
The seizure of the southern end of the Ridge and the cap-
ture of the village of Messines was carried out by the 2nd
Anzac Corps with the 3rd Australian, New Zealand, and
British Divisions in line. During the afternoon the 4th
Australian Division passed the New Zealanders, gaining
a pre-arranged objective.

The Australians first entered the Ypres battle fol-
lowing some days later on September 20, though the
Australian artillery had been in support of the British since
July 31, The battle of Menin Road was one of a series
of hops designed to recover definitely limited strips of
ground along the Ypres front. The 1st and 2nd Aus-
tralian Divisions drove the Germans into Polygon Wood.
On the 26th, the 4th and 5th Australian Divisions cap-
tured Polygon Wood and the outskirts of Zonnebeke
village. On October 4 both Anzac Corps, with the 1st,
2nd, and 3rd Australian Divisions and the New Zealand
Division in line, captured the high ground of the Brood-
seinde Ridge, at the moment when the enemy was prepar-
ing to attack. The German and Australian troops met in

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 55

"No-Man's" land, and the Australians completely out-
fought their opponents.

Still the Passchendaele Ridge was not completely in
British hands, and the 2nd Australian Division made an-
other advance on October 9. On the 12th the 3rd and
4th Divisions and the New Zealanders attacked Passchen-
daele, but; by the end of the day were forced to abandon
the ground they had won. Two further attacks were
made on the 22nd and 30th by Canadian and Australian
troops, and on November 6 the Canadians won Passchen-
daele village and the limit of the Ridge, Towards the
close of the 1917 campaign three squadrons of the Aus-
tralian Flying Corps made a first appearance in France.
Nos. 2 and 3 Squadrons arrived during September and
No. 4 in the following December.

The year 1918 was marked by two events. The
first was the formation of the five Australian Divisions
in France into the Australian Army Corps under the com-
mand, first, of General Birdwood, and then, on his pro-
motion, of General Monash. The second event was the
last and greatest German offensive.

This last German drive commenced on March 21
and for a time swept before it the French and British
defences. Position after position, won by the expenditure
of much British blood, fell again into the hands of the
enemy, despite the most vigorous defence. In the many
famous fights put up by the Australian troops during that
period the battle of Villers Bretonneux stands out a
supreme effort.

Villers Bretonneux fell into the hands of the Ger-
mans by sudden attack on April 24. The 13th and 15th
Australian Infantry Brigades delivered a counter-attack,
which began at 1 1 p.m. and ended at dawn on the anni-
versary of the Anzac Landing. The ground had been
but lightly reconnoitred and the chances of losing direc-
tion at night were many. The instructions to the troops

56 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

were to neglect all flanking fire from Villers Bretonneux
and the woods beyond it, and to squeeze the Germans in
the town between the jaws of a huge pincers of troops.
The success of the movement exceeded the wildest expec-
tations. By dawn the counter-attack had practically
reached the old line north and south of Villers, thus
surrounding three sides. The Germans in the town were
either captured, killed, or driven out through a rapidly
closing exit.

For the succeeding three months the British troops
rested and recuperated, while the Australian Divisions
carried out successful raiding along the Morlancourt
Ridge and captured Hamel village all movements un-
dertaken under the command of General Monash and
raising him high in the estimation of the British High
Command.

The fury of the German last massed attack wore
itself out before the stubborn defence of the British and
Australian troops. On August 3, the Australians broke
through the German defence behind Villers Bretonneux,
completely demoralising the enemy. Other successes
set the Germans in retreat, and by the end of August the
whole German line from the Scarpe to the Somme were
retiring, badly shaken, but not yet broken. On Sep-
tember 17, the enemy came to a temporary halt before
the old Hindenburg line, but the Australians and other
British troops would not be denied. The Germans were
pressed back and the supposedly impregnable Hindenburg
line attacked. In November the long expected request
for an Armistice came from the enemy and the war in
Europe was over*

When the main body of Australian troops journeyed
to France (1916) they left behind them in Egypt the
Australian and New Zealand Light Horse. For some
months the work of this force consisted in the defence
of the Canal Zone, and they saw some brisk fighting.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 57

By January 1917 Gkneral Murray, who commanded in
Egypt, had pushed forward to the borders of Palestine,
the land behind them being now secure from invasion
by desert tribes. On March 26 an attack was launched
on Gaza, which, when on the very point of success, had
to be withdrawn because of the fresh Turkish troops
marching to the relief of the town. This check gave the
enemy time to complete and strengthen the Gaza-Beer-
sheba position. General Allenby led the attack on this,
line by a frontal attack on Beersheba, while General Chau-
vel planned a flank attack. The scheme proved entirely
successful, and by November 6 the Turks had abandoned
the position constructed with so much care, and were in
full flight. Allenby forced a keen pursuit and by De-
cember 8 had captured Jerusalem. The Turks had halted
a little way beyond Jerusalem, and on December 27 made
an attempt to regain the city. Again repulsed, they be-
came disorganised, and, after some minor operations, the
Australians were able to push on and reach the Jordan,,
capturing Jericho.

Allenby's force crossed the Jordan on March 23 and
by the 26th had reached the railway. Turkish and Ger-
man reinforcements prevented the success of the raid, and
the Australians had to be withdrawn. Another raid across-
the Jordan was staged for April 30, with the object o
capturing the Shunet-Nimrim position 5 but this also
failed. In the meantime Allenby was forced into idle-
ness by the withdrawal of a number of his best troops
to face the German offensive in Flanders. To replace
these troops, Allenby received Indian cavalry and infan-
try, Jewish battalions, Armenians, Algerians, and coloured
troops from the British West Indies and South Africa.
With this army of mixed races he fought the famous
Nablus battle, partly on the plains of Armageddon, com-
pletely outwitting and outfighting the German command,
On September 19 Allenby's infantry broke through the

58 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Turkish lines, and the cavalry commenced its famous ride
around the enemy's rear. This ride was accomplished
by the whole of Allenby's mounted troops some 12,000
strong, under General Chauvel. The Australians then
proceeded to roll up the enemy, inflicting dreadful
slaughter. Damascus was captured on October 1 there
not being, then, a Turkish army in the field.

THE PROGRESS OF RAILWAYS IN
AUSTRALIA

ALTHOUGH the inception of Railways in Australia dates
back to 1845, the years from 1879 onwards were those
of the large growth. During 1 845 a wave of railway
promotions ran high in England. Among the 1263
private bills lodged with the Clerk of Parliament (Lon-
don) in that year was one for the construction by a private
company of the Sydney, Parramatta, Richmond, and
Windsor Railway. It was to be forty miles long and the
cost was estimated at approximately 500,000.

The news of the proposed London flotation was not
long in reaching Sydney, and in the colony an agita-
tion for the building of railways began. At a Public
Meeting held on January 29, 1846, it was proposed to
build a line from Sydney to Goulburn. Rough surveys
were made by Lieutenant Woore, R.N., who reported
to a meeting held on January 27, 1848. At that meet-
ing it was decided to form the Sydney Railway Company.
This Company was incorporated by Act of Parliament in
1849, but, instead of commencing with the Sydney-Goul-
burn Railway, it decided to turn its attention to the older
project the Sydney-Parramatta line. Charles Cowper
was the first president and manager of the Tramway and
Railway Company.

The first sod of the Sydney-Parramatta Railway was
turned on July 3, 1850, by the daughter of the Governor,

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 59

Sir Charles Fitzroy. Pending a settlement of the gauge
question, then agitating the colonial governments, it was
decided to let contracts for bridges, culverts, and earth-
works between Sydney and Haslam's Creek (Rookwood).
This work was well in hand when the discovery of gold
in New South Wales and Victoria disorganised the labour
market and the contractor had to be released from his
engagement.

To advance the construction of the railway, in which
it was greatly interested, the Government imported five
hundred navvies, and the work was at once resumed by the
Company. Wages continued to leap upwards, and the
Company became financially straitened. The Govern-
ment, having advanced considerable sums of money
some 150,000 in all for the construction of the line,
was forced to intervene and take over the work and com-
plete it. Three locomotives, built by Robert Stephenson
and Co. of < Newcastle-on-Tyne, were imported and the
railway between Sydney and Parramatta Junction (after-
wards called Granville) was opened on September 26,
1855. The cost ran to 565,7 10.

The Hunter River Railway Company was incorpor-
ated in October 1853, to build a line from Newcastle to
West Maitland and beyond, and it began construction be-
tween Newcastle and Morpeth, but soon found its finances
unequal to the work. Again the Government had to
take over and continue. Two four-wheeled tank loco-
motives, constructed by William Fairbairn and Co. of
Manchester, were bought. The section from Honey-
suckle Point to East Maitland was opened during April
1857, with a completed length of 17 miles 8f chains. The
second section, from Honeysuckle Point to Newcastle, was
opened in March 1858.

Thus two private companies- had tried to build rail-
ways in Australia, and in each case the Government, after
advancing large sums, had been obliged to take over the

60 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

work and the liabilities. The Ministry now decided
that for the future railways should be a State
monopoly, and in 1854 an Act was passed providing for
the construction of railways by the Government and ap-
pointing three Commissioners to operate them. The first
Commissioner appointed was Captain Martindale. From
that time construction was rapid. By 1 865 there was built
a total length of 143 miles, with termini in the Sydney
District at Darling Harbour, Picton, Penrith, and Rich-
mond. In the Newcastle area the railway had been ex-
tended to Singleton, with a branch from East Maitland
to Morpeth. By 1875 the mileage had extended to 437
and in 1885 had grown to 1732 miles. During June
1883 a connection was established with the Victorian rail-
way system at Albury, and in 1888 with the Queensland
railway system at Wallangarra.

From the inception of the first railway construction
was rapid and often on no settled plan. Many sections,
later to be linked up with the great trunk lines of the
colonies, were in existence, but wer$ in many cases isolated
from the cities. To construct the links so that the rail-
ways functioned as a whole was the great problem facing
the Governments, for many of those links consisted of
long viaducts and large bridges over difficult places.

When the Newcastle-Maitland Railway was first
projected, with its extensions north, south, and westwards,
it was realised that sooner or later Newcastle would have
to be linked up with Sydney. In 1884 the bridging of
the Hawkesbury River was commenced. The bridge was
to be of seven spans of^416 feet each 5 the foundations
of the piers of concrete, cased in steel caissons 5 the upper
parts of the piers and abutments of masonry. The con-
tract price was 327,000.

In building the bridge each span was assembled on
Dangar Island and was floated on pontoons to its posi-
tion about 4000 feet distant. The bridge was completed

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 61

and opened for traffic in 1889. It is notable for the in-
troduction on a large scale of eye-and-pin connections in
the tension members, and for the exceptional depth 120
feet below the river-bed to which the piers had to be
carried.

In 1910 the New South Wales Government Rail-
way Commissioners abandoned the famous zigzag by
which the railway descended the Blue Mountains into the
Lithgow valley, and the traffic was diverted to a much
easier, though longer, gradient. The ascent of the Blue
Mountains from the east (which at first had been accom-
plished by a minor zigzag) is now made by a long easy
deviation which reduced the grade from 1 in 30 to 1 in
80. Similar well-planned deviations were put in hand
to replace the original steep ascent at Picton on the south-
ern line, and at Stanwell Park on the South Coast Rail-
way.

In 1 925 the length of railway owned and worked by
the New South Wales Government totalled 5656 miles.
In addition there were 324^ miles of other railways, prin-
cipally private lines used for the conveyance of coal and
other minerals 5 also small lines worked by the Public
Works and Defence Departments. On June 30, 1925,
there were 359 miles of railway under construction, and
these have been added to from year to year.

The quick growth of population in the larger towns
and cities necessitated the duplication of certain tracks.
In addition to this work grades have been reduced and
curves obliterated where possible. The southern line is
duplicated, as is also the western line to a point beyond-
Orange 5 the northern line has been doubled past Branx-
ton and the south coast line past Wollongong. In addi-
tion, the Sydney suburban and Newcastle suburban lines
have been quadrupled.

Many of the suburban lines around Sydney have
been electrified, and in 1928 the government passed out

62 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

of loan funds the sum of 1,124,661 for the continuance
of this work.

During 1927-28 a great move was made in the con-
struction of the city underground railway. The first
section, from Central Station to St James Station, was
opened for traffic on December 20, 1926 the Illawarra
traffic being then carried into the heart of the city. On
September 25, 1927, the passengers from Bankstown were
also taken through Central Station to St James Station.
During the rush-hours of the day some thirty trains an
hour pass from St. James Station to serve the Illawarra-
Bankstown lines.

Much effective work has been accomplished in the
difficult tunnelling and cut and cover work for the other
sections of the city's underground railway. The great
cut at Wynyard Square is almost completed, and during
1929 this station- junction will be built and covered in.
The Town Hall Station is well under way, and the con-
necting tunnels in the four sections of the work are rapidly
approaching completion. For this work, during Decem-
ber 1928, Parliament voted out of loan money some
786,194, bringing the total of expenditure to
3,683,335. New lines in the suburbs are being pushed
forward. For the Regent's Park-Bankstown line the
Government appropriated in December 1928 some
45,000 a sum sufficient to complete the work. For the
Booyong-Ballina Railway a further sum of 51,302 has
been set aside, making a total expenditure for this railway
of 336,704, in spite of the original estimate for the work
being but 144,232. The Tempe-East Hills Railway is
to be expedited, and for this work Parliament voted
1 50,2 1 9. For the railway necessary to open Port Kem-
bla to the southern line at Moss Vale 3 1 1,1 03 was voted.
Other expenditure on city and suburban lines requires in
the immediate future 57,257, while 1,812,783 has been
allocated for the equipment of new lines, rolling stock,
buildings, etc.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 6$

Victoria. The Victorian railways were for many years
under not very successful private companies. During
June 1852 a deputation waited on Governor Latrobe ad-
vocating a railway from Melbourne to Mount Alexander*
The promoters asked for a loan, a grant of money towards
survey expenses, a free grant of land six chains wide along
the entire length of the proposed railway (100 miles), a
square mile of land in each ten miles along the proposed
route, and a guaranteed dividend upon subscribed capital.
At the end of the resultant negotiations they obtained very
excellent terms, although far less than they had asked
for.

During the following year the Melbourne-Mount
Alexander and Murray River Company's Act was passed
through Parliament. A grant of 5000 towards the
survey expenses was made by the Government, and for
some considerable time formed the only assets of the
Company. The first sod was turned in June 1854, but
little progress was made. Finally the Government had
to step in and complete construction.

The Melbourne and Hobson's Bay Railway Com-
pany was incorporated in 1853 to construct a line from
Flinders Street, Melbourne, to Sandridge (Port Mel-
bourne), the gauge to be 5ft. 3in. The Government
granted the Company a strip of land 100 yards wide
along the length of the line, and station sites of over 24
acres in Melbourne and over nine acres at Sandridge. This
railway was opened during September 1854, being the
first steam railway to operate in Australia. The company
constructed a branch line between Port Melbourne and
St. Kilda, which was opened on May 15, 1857.

The Geelong and Melbourne Railway Company was
incorporated in 1853 with a capital of 350,000. The
Government granted a strip of land 100 yards wide for

64 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

the length of the line, recesses for stations, Hi acres of
land at Geelong for a terminus, 1000 preliminary ex-
penses, and guaranteed a dividend of five per cent on the
17,500 shares. But the construction of this line pro-
ceeded very slowly. The Geelong to Duck Ponds sec-
tion was opened in October 1856, and the line from Wil-
liamstown Junction to Geelong was ready in 1857. The
Government acquired this railway in 1860.

The Melbourne and Suburban Railway Company,
Incorporated on November 24, 1857, built the line from
Princes Bridge, Melbourne, to Chapel Street, Prahran;
and from Swan Street Station, Richmond, to Hawthorn.
Free grants of land were made by the Government. The
section to Punt Road was opened on February 8, 1858} to
Cremorne Gardens on December 12, 1859, and to Chapel
Street on December 22, 1860. The Hawthorn branch
was opened on October 1, 1860.

The Melbourne and Hobson's Bay and Melbourne
and Suburban Companies amalgamated in 18 66 5 subse-
quently the Brighton Railway Company joined the amal-
gamation. The title of the Company was then altered
to the "Melbourne and Hobson's Bay United Railway
Company," and a connection was built between the
Flinders Street and Princes Bridge stations. In 1878
the Government purchased the system (9f miles of
double track and 6| miles of single track railway) for
1,320,000.

In 1856 the Government passed Acts of Parliament
authorising the construction of 185 miles of railway, in-
cluding lines from Melbourne to Castlemaine, Geelong to
Ballarat and westward, and a branch line to Williams-
town. In the following year a bill was presented in
Parliament, and passed, authorising the construction of
main track lines, including that to the Murray River.

At the end of the year 1 865 Victoria owned 273
miles of railway, the termini being at Melbourne, Port

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 65

Melbourne, St. Kilda, Brighton Beach, Hawthorn, Gee-
long, Ballarat, and Echuca. By 1875, 615 miles of rail-
ways had been built, and in 1885 the total mileage had
grown to 1672.

In 1925 some seventy years after the opening of
the first railway there were in Victoria 4491 miles of
railway in public use and 180^ miles under construction.
In addition there were 61^ miles of privately owned
railways, used mainly for timber, firewood, and sand
traffic.

The Melbourne Suburban Railway system in the year
1925 handled an enormous amount of business some
156,678,519 journeys. The suburban lines are almost
entirely electrified, and "Tait" cars, with sliding doors
and seating accommodation for 92 persons in each car,
are used on this service. The normal make-up of a subur-
ban train is six cars, but during the off-hours of the day
f our-and-two car trains are used.

South Australia claims to have passed in 1847 the
first Australian Railway Act of Parliament. This Act
contained many of the obsolete provisions contained in the
English Acts of the same period. An engine must consume
its own smoke under a penalty of 5 per day 5 private per-
sons could provide their own waggons and run them on the
lines, etc.

The Adelaide City and Port Railway Company was
floated in London during 1848. The company proposed
to use the 4ft. 8^in. gauge for a line from the city to
the port of Adelaide, and to construct a branch line to
the north arm of the river, the South Australian Govern-
ment to guarantee 5 per cent on the estimated cost of
construction for ten years. However, as the Company
regarded the venture more in the light of a land specula-
tion than of a railway, and the Government would not
grant the large areas of land asked for, the project fell

66 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

through. Later the Government built the railway, alter-
ing the gauge to 5ft. 3in. and allocating 50,000 out of
the public funds for the purpose. This was, the first
Government Railway line on British soil. The cost of
construction exceeded the estimate by many thousands
of pounds, mainly through the labour troubles incidental
to the finding of gold at that time in New South Wales
and Victoria. Wages went to a great height, a labourer
obtaining 20/- a day, while a man with a cart and horse
was paid 12 per week.

In 1854 the South Australian Government began
to construct a trunk line northward. It had previously
declared a railway policy for the colony. The great trunk
lines of the colony would be built on the 5ft. 3in. gauge,
while the feeder lines would use the 3ft. 6in. gauge.
The first section of the northern trunk line was from Ade-
laide to Gawler, some twenty-four miles. This section
was opened on October 5, 1857.

During this period there was always at the back
of the minds of the rulers of South Australia the ideal
of a great trunk line from Adelaide due northwards until
the northern seas were reached. The first section of this
project was the construction of the overland (north-south)
telegraph line between Adelaide and Darwin. This was
opened in 1872. The first section of the railway that
was to parallel the telegraph line the Port Augusta-
Oodnadatta Railway was begun in 1878 and completed
in 1891. The second section of the great trans-continen-
tal work was planned from Darwin to Pine Creek, in the
far north-lands. In 1883 an Act was passed by Parlia-
ment authorising the construction of this section on the
3ft. 6in. gauge. The sum of 959,300 was raised for
the purpose, besides a further sum of 57,000 for the
construction of a jetty at Palmerston (now Darwin).
Alternative tenders for the constructional work were
called for, the tenders to be for European or Chinese

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 67

labour. The tenders for Chinese labour proved so much
lower than those providing for white labour that they
had to be accepted. At one time some 3000 Chinese were
employed on the construction of the line. The railway
was opened to the Adelaide River on June 1, 1888, and
completed to Pine Creek by October 1, 1889.

The linking up of the South Australian railway sys-
tem with the Victorian system at Serviceton marked the
first through communication between colonies trains
from Melbourne being able to pass through to Adelaide
without a break of gauge. In 1865 South Australia had
only 68 miles of railways; in 1875 it possessed 209 miles
of railways opened, and in 1885 the total mileage
amounted to 1203 miles.

In 1925 the mileage of State-owned lines in South
Australia was 245 If, the State having lost 623^ miles of
railways by the handing over of the Oodnadatta-Port
Augusta and the Darwin-Pine Creek (Northern Terri-
tory Railways) to the Commonwealth Government in
1911. In addition to the State Railways there are fifty
miles of private lines in use. In June 1925 there were
1 14 miles of railways under construction in the State.

Queensland, from the inception of her railways, kept
two main policies in view. First, that all construction
and ownership should be by and for the Government 5
second, that the railways should be decentralised. Un-
fortunately considerations of expense, material to so young
a colony, made advisable the adoption of the 3ft. 6in.
gauge.

In 1863 an Act of the Queensland Parliament pro-
vided for the construction and regulation of the colony's
railways. The Government almost immediately let a
contract to an English firm for the construction of a line
from Ipswich to the Little Liverpool Range 2l miles.
The railway from Ipswich to Bigge's Camp (Grand-
Chester) was opened in 1865; that from Rockhampton to

<68 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Westwood was opened in 1867, and the section from
Grandchester to Toowoomba in the same year. It was
not until eight years later (in 1875) that the short con-
nection of 4% miles (Oxley Point to Roma Street) joined
the capital to the railway system. Connection was made
with the New South Wales Railway system at Wallan-
garra in 1888.

The steel bridge over the Brisbane River at Indoo-
roopilly, on the Queensland Railway system, was des-
troyed by a flood in 1 893. The construction of the Albert
Bridge was immediately placed in hand and was com-
pleted by 1895, at a cost of 70,894. It consists of two
340-feet double spans of double-intersection hog-back
girders. The piers and abutments are of faced masonry,
the former standing on wrought-iron illiptical caissons
filled with concrete. The centre pier is 1 00 feet above the
bed of the river.

Between the years 1918 and 1928 Queensland made
great strides in railway development. In 1925 only
sixty years after the first railway was opened, there were
6114^ miles of railway in use the greatest mileage of
any State system. In addition there were 1302 miles
of privately owned railways, built mainly for the carriage
of sugar-cane and coal. The policy of the Queensland
Government has been to provide railways in advance of
settlement, and in the year 1925 it was computed that
there was a route mile of Government Railway for every
140 persons in the State.

This policy of railway before settlement has been
a great factor in the development of the country, especi-
ally as the fares and freights have been kept compara-
tively low. The seaports as far north as Cairns are
now all connected, the last section being Lilypond to Card-
well, opened in December 1924. In addition railway
lines run westward from the all important seaports,
thoroughly opening up the State's hinterlands.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Western Australia. The latest established colony on
Australian continent Western Australia did not begia
railway construction until long after the eastern colonies
The first line to be built was from Lockeville to Yoganup-
a distance of only 12 miles and this was constructed
in 1871 for the Western Australian Timber Company.

Another short strip of railway was built between
Geraldton and Northampton for the service of the copper
mines of the latter town. The gauge was 3ft. 6in.
Construction began in 1874, but the line was not opened
for traffic until 1879, though a small section was unoffici-
ally used after September 1877.

The most important section of railway constructioa
undertaken in Western Australia before 1888 was the
railway from Fremantle through Perth (the capital) to<
Guildford, linking the most populous areas and forming
the nucleus of the future grand trunk lines to the north,,
east, and south. At the end of the year 1885 Western
Australia had a total of 124 miles of railway.

Under the forceful policy of John Forrest the State-
made great strides in railway communication. The length
of the Government-owned lines was increased from 203*
miles in 1893 to 1434 miles in 1903. The 242-miles.
line from Albany to Beverley, which was constructed in
1889 on the land-grant principle by the West Australian
Land Company, was purchased by the Government in
1896 for 1,100,000, the company handing over the
whole of its properties and relinquishing its claim to about
2,700,000 acres of land

Another long stretch, from Midland Junction to
Walkaway, was constructed on the land-grant system by
the Midland Railway Company of Western Australia, aw
English company with headquarters in London. This line
is important in opening up the coastal districts towards
the north, since at its north end it joins the Government
Northampton-Geraldton Railway at Walkaway, and the

70 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

main Government railway system at Midland Junction
at its south end, thus forming a complete link between
Geraldton and Perth, the capital. The constructing Com-
pany was granted land to the extent o 12,000 acres per
mile constructed, to be selected anywhere along the route
o the railway within a belt extending 40 miles on each
side of the line. The total grant acquired by the Mid-
land Railway Company under these conditions was
3,316,464 acres, and some of the land is the finest grain-
growing country in the western colony. The Govern-
ment also helped the Company through financial difficul-
ties which, at least once, caused a cessation of construction.
The line was completed and opened for traffic on Novem-
ber 24, 1894. Since then the Government has on several
occasions tried to purchase it, but without success.

In 1925 the mileage of Government-owned railways
in Western Australia totalled 3733, and there were 826
miles of privately-owned railways in the state, the whole
making a mile route of railway for every 8 1 of the popu-
lation. On June 30, 1925, there were 138^ miles of
railway under construction. Of the private lines, most of
them, outside the Midland Railway Company's system,
are used for the conveyance of timber and firewood.

Tasmania. In the island colony of Tasmania railway
construction began in 1867 with the authorisation of a
line from Launceston to Deloraine. This line, known
as the Launceston and Western Railway, was built on the
5ft. 3in. gauge. It was opened on February 10, 1871.
Soon afterwards the constructing company became finan-
cially involved, and the Government took over the rail-
way.

An Act of Parliament was passed in 1 869 to empower
the Tasmanian Main-line Railway Company to build a
line of 122 miles from Hobart to Evandale, near Laun-
ceston, where it would join the Deloraine Railway.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 71

Owing to the heavy mountainous country over which the
construction passed, it was decided to build the railway on
the 3ft. 6in. gauge. From Evandale, where the two lines
of railway met, it was decided to lay a third rail on the
5ft. 3in. gauge, so that trains could pass direct into Laun-
ceston. Construction of the railway was begun in 1872,
and the line was opened on November 1, 1876, the cost
being 1, 190,000; in 1890 it was acquired by the Tas-
manian Government at a cost of 1,106,500.

In 1925 the Tasmanian Government owned 673
miles of railway. In addition there were 23 5i miles pri-
vately owned a much larger proportion than in any
other state of the Commonwealth. The Emu Bay Rail-
way Company and the Mount Lyell Mining and Railway
Company both handle general traffic passenger and
goods and other private lines handle minerals and
timber as well.

Commonwealth. Long before the inception of Federation
the East- West Transcontinental Railway had become a
question of vital importance. Sir John Forrest claimed
asserting it again and again in the early days of the
Federal Parliament that this railway, to connect West-
ern Australia with her sister states on the east coast, was
the principal inducement offered to the western State to
accept Federation. He argued that the East- West Rail-
way stood on the same basis as the concession made to
New South Wales that the Federal Capital should be
within the mother colony. However true the con-
tention of the great Westralian may be, it is certain
that, while the location of the Federal Capital was
an obligation written into the Constitution, there is
no such written record for the East-West Railway.
But the Federal Parliament from its earliest days
realised the disability of having one of the members
of the Federation cut off from communication with

72 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

the eastern States except by a tedious sea-voyage.
Further, from the first sitting of the Federal Parliament
its members were continually engaged with the question
of the defence of Australia, and the East-West Railway
was of vital importance to any scheme of defence. If,
later, Western Australia extended its coastal railway
beyond Geraldton into the wild-lands of the Kimberleys,
then, with the Queensland northern system in building,
the northlands would be held from east and west, as if
in the grip of a gigantic pair of pliers. Moreover, with
the transcontinental as a base, and the east and west coastal
lines spreading north, the greater part of the problem of
the settlement of the central northlands would be closer
to solution.

The programme of legislation formulated by the
Barton Federal Ministry definitely pledged the building
of the East- West Transcontinental Railway. In the Fed-
eral Parliament the Western Australian members insist-
ently agitated that a commencement of the work should
be made. In 1907 an Act was passed providing funds for
the necessary surveys of the 1063 miles of route between
Port Augusta, the terminus of the proposed line in South
Australia, and Kalgoorlie, where the transcontinental line
would join the Western Australian Railways system.

The survey was completed in March 1909 and
showed the exact distance of the proposed Commonwealth
Railway to be 1051^ miles, passing through some good,
as well as some poor lands. In 1911 a Federal Act
authorised the construction of the line, provided that
Western Australia and South Australia granted the neces-
sary land. On September 14, 1912, the first sod of the
railway was turned by Lord Denman at Port Augusta,
and the two ends met on the Nullarbor Plain during
October 1917,

In the construction of the line no great engineering
difficulties were encountered. Throughout its long length

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 73

it passes over no stream of water, and for 330 miles it
travels the Nullarbor Plain in a dead-straight line, with
but slight gradients. The principal difficulty was the lack
of water along the route. Borings produced only water
of a very poor quality, some being without commercial or
human use. Tanks had to be constructed at intervals
along 500 miles of the line. Yet, despite these difficulties,
the construction was rapid. In one day 2 miles and 40
chains of rails were laid; in one week 14 miles and SO
chains 5 in four weeks 46 miles, 62 chains 5 and in one year
442 miles, 44 chains.

As the whole length of the railway passed over un-
occupied country, the Commonwealth Railway Depart-
ment was forced to provide wholly for its officials and
workmen. Stores, bakeries, butcheries, water-stations,
and boarding-houses (some of them large enough to house
five hundred men at a time) had to be constructed and
fitted, for both stationary and travelling purposes. Then,
after the line was constructed and in working, arrange-
ments had to be made, and continued, to bring to the
employees stationed on the vast waste spaces the neces-
sities of life even water.

On this east-west railway were used the first rails
rolled in Australia (they came from the mills of G. and
C. Hoskins, of Eskbank, New South Wales), as well as
the first rails rolled at the mills of the Broken Hill Pro-
prietary Limited, of Newcastle, New South Wales.

During 1914 the Federal Government opened the
only railway in Federal Capital Territory. It runs from
Queanbeyan to Canberra, some 4 miles and 75 chains, and
was built on the 4ft. 8^in. gauge.

In 1923, the Government authorised the extension
of the Darwin-Katherine Railway southward to Daly
Waters. This necessitated the bridging of the Katherine
River, a very formidable and expensive undertaking*
The bridge was completed in 1926, and tenders for the

74 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

extension of the railway were called for. It is possible
that this extension will be opened during 1929.

On the southern borders of the Northern Territory
the Victorian Proprietary Company have been building
for the Commonwealth Government an extension of the
Oodnadatta-Port Augusta Railway towards Alice Springs
(a town almost exactly in the centre of Australia). The
distance to be covered is 291 miles. In December 1928
the section from Oodnadatta to Rumbalara was completed,
and a weekly train service has been established. To com-
plete the work to Alice Springs will necessitate another
121 miles of construction, and this is expected to be
completed by June 1929.

THE GAUGE QUESTION

EVERY year the question of the varying gauges of
Australian Railways comes up for discussion. It has been
recognised that at a very early date some way of obviating
the constant change of gauge between the States will have
to be arrived at. Numerous ingenious solutions have been
propounded, but none of them of any great practicability.
There seems to be no alternative to the adoption of
a universal gauge for Australia and to the alteration of all
State railways to comply with it.

Queensland and Western Australia build their rail-
ways on the 3ft. 6in. gauge 5 Victoria and South Australia
adopted the 5ft. 3in. for their main trunk lines; New
South Wales constructs on the 4ft. 8^in. gauge. When
the Commonwealth Government entered the field of
railway construction it adopted the almost universal 4ft.
8^in. gauge. Thus, except between Victoria and South
Australia, it is imperative for passengers and goods to be
changed from one gauge to another at border towns.

But for an error on the part of the Government of
New South Wales it is probable that Australia would have

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 75

built on only one gauge. The mistake came about simply.
When, in 1848, the New South Wales Government for-
warded to the Home Government proposals for railways
in the colony 5 the 4ft. 8-Jin. gauge was suggested and
approved. But the construction of the first railway was
in the hands of an Irishman who warmly advocated the
Irish gauge (5ft. 3in.). The matter was referred to the
English Commissioners, who decided that the question of
the gauge was not worth much thought. When the ques-
tion of gauge was again raised with the Colonial Office, the
reply was sent to the New South Wales Government that
the colony could please itself in the matter* Mr Shields,
the engineer for the construction company, stuck man-
fully to the 5ft. Sin. gauge, and succeeded in persuading
the New South Wales officials to adopt his views. By
Legislative Act the 5ft. 3in. gauge was fixed for the rail-
ways of the colony, and the Governments of Victoria and
South Australia were so advised. But long before the
legislative Act was passed even before the reply of the
Colonial Office to the second question was received
Shields had resigned and returned to England. His
successor, James Wallace, a Scot, reported to the Govern-
ment in September 1 852 in favour of the 4ft. 8-^in. gauge.
In 1853 a new Act was passed, sanctioning the narrow
gauge, but neither Victoria nor South Australia was noti-
fied of this change of purpose until after they had
completed their arrangements for the construction of
their railways on the 5ft. 3 in. gauge. These two states,
on going into the cost of making the change at that stage,
found the expense would be very great, and decided to
continue with their original plans,

THE PROGRESS OF TRAMWAYS IN
AUSTRALIA

New South Wales. Tramways in Australia are almost
entirely confined within the boundaries of towns and

76 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

cities. The first tramway in New South Wales was con-
structed very soon after the opening of the first Rail-
way (the Sydney-Parramatta line) and extended from
Circular Quay to the Railway Station, a distance of If
miles. The cars were horse-drawn, and the rails were
laid on the roadway, projecting inches above the surface.
So dangerous and obstructive was this tramway that
in 1865 it was removed, and Sydney remained without
tramway service until September 1879, when a line was
laid from Hunter Street to the Railway Station, via
Elizabeth Street, to carry passengers to and from the
International Exhibition in the Inner Domain. The
cars were double-deckers and were hauled by steam
motors.

An extension of this tramway from Hunter Street
to Bridge Street was opened in 1882. Meanwhile lines
had been laid to Randwick in 1881 j Waverley in 1881 j
Cleveland Street in 1881 j Botany in 1882} Forest Lodge
in 1882; and Glebe Point in 1882. In 1885 Sydney had
27^ miles of tramways. Thenceforward progress slack-
ened. By 1895 the tramway mileage had only increased
to 40^. The King Street to Ocean Street cable tramway
was opened in September 1894, and the first electric tram-
way in Australia was built to run between Randwick and
Waverley and was opened for traffic on December 9,
1890.

In Newcastle, the first tramway was opened between
Perkins Street and Plattsburg in 1887, covering a dis-
tance of eight miles. Four miles of steam tramways, from
East to West Maitland, were built in 1909. In the far
west of the State, ten miles of steam-operated tramways
were opened at Broken Hill between February 1902 and
December 1912.

Victoria. The Melbourne Omnibus Company, formed in
1 869, proposed, nine years after its inception, to introduce

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 77

a tramway system into the city, and changed its name to
the Melbourne Tramway and Omnibus Company. In
1883 Parliament passed an act authorising the company
to construct cable tramways in the streets of Melbourne
and suburbs with the consent of the municipalities inter-
ested, who, however, had the option of constructing the
lines themselves. The municipalities decided to exercise
the option given to them, and formed a Tramway Trust
of seven members from the Melbourne City Council and
one member each from eleven of the surrounding muni-
cipalities. A loan of 1,650,000 was raised for the con-
struction of lines, power-houses, etc. An Amending Act
of 1892 provided that the tramways should be completed
before the end of 1893 and leased to the Melbourne
Tramway and Omnibus Company for a term of thirty-
two years from July 1884, when liability for interest on
loans began. The Company had to provide rolling-stock,
equip lines and power-houses, pay licence-fees for cars,
drivers, and conductors, and municipal rates. The Com-
pany had also to provide a sinking fund and interest on
loan and to hand over the lines and equipment in good
working order at the termination of the lease.

The first line opened was from Melbourne to Rich-
mond, in 1885. Other lines followed at short intervals
and the system of 43^ miles of double-track cable lines,
and 4^ miles of double-track horse-drawn lines, was com-
pleted in 1891. The horse tramways were later converted
to cable.

After the year 1900 the municipalities around Mel-
bourne engaged extensively in tramway construction.
The Prahran-Malvern Tramway Trust, appointed by the
Municipal Councils of Prahran, Malvern, St. Kilda, Haw-
thorn, Kew, Camberwell, and Caulfield built and oper-
ated electric tramways 35.11 miles in length, the first
section being opened on May 31, 1910. The Hawthorn
Tramway Trust opened the first section of an electric line

78 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

between Princes Bridge and Power Street, Hawthorn, on
April 6, 1916, and eventually operated 1 LI 2 miles. The
first section of the Melbourne, Brunswick, and Coburg
tramways (7.07 miles) from Moreland Road to Bell
Street was opened on April 27, 1916. A cable tramway
between Clifton Hill and Preston (2^ miles), built by
a private company, was subsequently bought by the North-
cote City Council. The North Melbourne Tramways, ex-
tending 11.75 miles, were also constructed by a private
company between Flemington Bridge and the Saltwater
River and were opened towards the end of 1906.

Under an Act of Parliament of 1904 the Board of
Land and Works was authorised to construct a tramway
from St. Kilda to Brighton. The line to Park Street,
Middle Brighton, was opened on May 7, 1906, and the
extension to Brighton Beach was completed on December
22 of the same year. The total length is 5.16 miles and
is on the 5ft. Sin. gauge. This tramway, and also the
electric line from Sandringham to Black Rock (now ex-
tended to Beaumaris), and opened in March 1919, are
under the control of the Railway Commissioners.

Queensland. The first tramways in Brisbane were horse-
drawn and were opened on August 12, 1885. The system
failed to return a profit and was later transformed to
haulage by electric power. The first line converted was
from North Quay to Breakfast Creek.

In 1909 the Rockhampton Municipal Council opened
a system of steam-hauled trams, the track being built on
the 3ft. 6in. gauge and the length being 6.65 miles. Many
other tramways have been constructed in Queensland, but
mainly for the purpose of the conveyance of sugar-cane
from the fields to the mills and therefore not to be pro-
perly classed as tramways.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 79

South Australia. A system of horse-drawn tramways was
constructed for Adelaide by private companies in 1878
and continued under private control until 1906, when the
Municipal Tramways Trust Act authorised the Govern-
ment to acquire all lines. The trust consisted of eight
members and was given wide powers for extension and
operation. The forty-nine miles of tramways were pur-
chased by the Government for 283,357 and converted
to electric haulage. The first electric system Kensing-
ton to Norwood was opened on March 9, 1909.

Tasmania. In Hobart a commencement of tramway traffic
was made by the construction of nine miles of electric
tramways by a private company. They were opened for
service in 1893 and were subsequently purchased by the
Hobart Municipal Council.

Under the Launceston Tramway Act of 1906 the
City Council came to an agreement with a private com-
pany for the construction of an electric tramway system.
The agreement lapsed, and the City Council constructed
and now operates the lines. The system was opened on
August 16, 1911, and is now 10^ miles in length.

Western Australia. In 1912 the Western Australian
Government opened negotiations for the purchase of
the tramway system from the English Company which
built and operated it. A Tramways Purchase Act was
passed, and the whole of the system in Perth and suburbs
was taken over by the Government in July 1913.
The tramways have been placed under the control of
the Commissioner for Railways. The Nedlands Park
Tramway and the Victoria Park Municipal Tramways
were also acquired by the Government in 1913$ and
the Osborne Park Tramway on December 15, 1914.

The Kalgoorlie and Boulder Tramways are operated
by a private company. The first section of the system was
opened in 1902 and the last section completed in 1904.

8o FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

The Fremantle electric tramways (8.61 route miles)
are owned and operated by the Municipal Coun-
cil, with power taken from the Government Electric
Trust. They were opened in November 1905 and are
on the 3ft. 6in. gauge, as are all the other tramways in
the State.

THE PROGRESS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
IN AUSTRALIA

THE first Act in New South Wales providing for any
system of Local Government was entitled the Parish
Roads Act and was passed in 1 840. Under this Act one-
third of the proprietors of land through which, or within
three miles of which, a parish road passed could requisi-
tion the magistrates in Petty Session for authority to elect
Trustees, who were empowered to levy rates not exceed-
ing 6d. per acrej to buy, sell, or exchange lands 5 to ap-
point surveyors j to establish tolls and toll-bars and let
them on lease for periods not exceeding twelve months j
and to borrow money for road-making and road-repair-
ing.

The Imperial Act of 1 842 empowered the Governor
to constitute district councils with local functions, the
revenue to be raised by levying rates within the district.
Qualifications for councillors were the same as for the
Legislative CoundL The duties of these Councils were
the construction and upkeep of the roads, streets, bridges,
and public buildings; the establishment and support of
schools 5 the purchase, sale, and management of property $
the provision of means for defraying certain expenses con-
nected with the administration of justice and the police.
This comprehensive scheme of Local Government was
strongly opposed by the colonists, mainly because of the
provision for the local authority to pay half the cost of
the police expenses while the sole control of the police
lay with the Governor.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 81

Under the above Act there was incorporated in 1 843
a district including Appin, Narellan, Campbelltown, Cam-
den, and Picton. Later, Appin and Carnpbelltown were
constituted separate districts. In 1 844 there were twenty-
eight district councils in the colony. With the exception
of certain road-trusts, specially established, no further ex-
tension of Local Government took place in the colony
until 1858, when the Municipalities Act was passed. This
Act provided for the incorporation of any town or rural
district as a municipality upon petition from any fifty
resident householders. Elections were to be held under a
ratepayer franchise. Revenue was to be derived from
tolls, a general rate on assessed annual value, and special
rates for sewerage, etc. Provision was made for a
Government subsidy for a limited period after incorpora-
tion. Under this Act thirty-five districts were incor-
porated thirty-three of which still exist.

An Act of 1867 repealed the Municipalities Act of
1858 and provided for the classification of all future
municipalities into boroughs and municipal districts, ex-
isting municipalities being classed as boroughs. A city,
town, or suburb of the metropolis, or of any populous
country district, could be constituted a borough if it con-
tained a population of not less than 1000 and an area of
not more than nine square miles, of which no part was
farther distant from any other part than six miles. Any
area of country not containing a borough and having a
population of not less than 500 and an area of not more
than fifty square miles might be constituted a municipal
district Incorporation was voluntary, and plural voting
for the aldermen was allowed. During the succeeding
years a great number of amendments were made to this
Act, and these, with the original Act, were consolidated in
a new Act in 1897 without any new principles being in-
troduced.

The city of Sydney was incorporated in 1 842. In the

82 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

year 1 849 a Select Committee of Parliament reported that
the City Council had lost the confidence of the citizens
and was an impediment to the advancement of the city.
The Select Committee added to its report a recommenda-
tion that the Council should be dissolved and that its
powers should be administered by three Commissioners.
A resolution embodying the features of the Select Com-
mittee's report was rejected by the Legislative Council in
1849} but, after further consideration and a further re-
port by a Select Committee, in 1853 the Corporation was
dissolved and the city placed under the rule of three Com-
missioners. Self-government was not restored to the citi-
zens until 1857.

Except for a number of minor amendments which
complicated the working of the Act, no further provision
for Local Government was made until 1905. The Shires
Act, passed in that year, formulated an entirely new sys-
tem of Local Government. The voluntary system was
abandoned, it being shown that under the voluntary sys-
tem only 2830 square miles had been incorporated out of
a total of 3 1 0,372. The new Act divided the State, with
the exception of existing municipalities and the sparsely-
settled western district, into shires, and these were sub-
divided into ridings, with equal representation on the
Shire Council. The powers given to these councils were
very wide and comprehensive. The rating was to be on
the unimproved value of land, and not, as before, on the
annual rental value. Immediately the Shires came into
existence, the State Land Tax was withdrawn.

The principles adopted in the Shires Act were ex-
tended to Municipalities by the Local Government Exten-
sion Act of 1906, in which the distinction between muni-
cipal districts and boroughs was abolished. The Governor
was empowered to proclaim as a city any municipality
which had, during the five years preceding the Proclama-
tion, an average population of at least 20,000, with an

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 83

average revenue of at least 20,000, and which formed
an independent centre of population.

The Local Government Act of 1906, consolidating
the acts governing the Shires and Municipalities, came
into force in 1907. This was amended in 1907 and 1908
and was finally repealed by the Local Government Act of
1919.

Small changes were made in the Local Government
Acts in New South Wales between the years 1909 and
1918. In the last year Local Government was vitally
affected by the passing of the Women's Legal Status Act,
which gave women equal rights with men in election to
the offices of aldermen and councillors.

The Local Government Act of 1919, passed by the
New South Wales Parliament, continued and improved
the system adopted in 1906. Under it new Shires could
be established, while the old ones continued or were
altered to suit circumstances. In addition much larger
municipal units could be constructed through the provision
for municipalities and shires to join in creating county
districts. Under this provision four county districts have
been "formed St. George, Richmond River, Clarence
River, and Southern Riverina. The Act also provides
for units smaller than shires, and any village or town in a
shire may be proclaimed an urban area, with a committee
of three members exercising certain powers locally under
the supervision of the Shire Council.

Each shire is divided into three ridings, and muni-
cipalities may be divided into wards. A Shire Council
consists of either six or nine Councillors presided over by
a president. A Municipal Council consists of from six
to twelve aldermen, presided over by a mayor. Council-
lors are elected every three years. Women are eligible
for office and also vote. The local authorities are author-
ised to construct and maintain roads and streets j to pro-

84 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

vide water supply and sewerage or sanitary system 5 to
enforce the public health acts; to carry out town improve-
ment schemes; to regulate the erection of buildings; to
provide and maintain public reserves, parks, baths,
libraries, hospitals, etc.; to manufacture and supply gas,
electricity, or hydraulic power; to provide telephone ser-
vices for outlying districts; to acquire and preserve places
of historic interest or scenic attraction; to control the
plucking of wild flowers; to keep rivers and watercourses
free from obstruction; to impound straying animals; to
regulate cremations and burials and provide cemeteries
and crematoria; to establish public markets, weighbridges,
wharves, abattoirs, sheep-dips, inland watering-places for
travelling stock, etc.; to regulate the sale of fish and meat;
to license vehicles, to build light lines of railways, and
tramways and maintain ferries; to build and sell houses
for working-men; to provide and manage employment
registries; to compel the destruction of noxious weeds.

All lands, except public parks, the sites of charitable
institutions, unoccupied Crown lands, and similar areas,
are rateable. The Councils may raise loans and are en-
titled to participate in Government grants for specific
purposes.

The Act is administered by the Local Government
Department, and if a Local Government area defaults the
Governor is empowered to appoint an Administrator for
such area. The Department advises and assists the Local
Government bodies and makes available to the Councils
its expert engineering staff, advises them on town-plan-
ning, and collects and collates information of value to
them.

In 1927, as a result of the disrepute into which the
government of the City of Sydney had fallen, Parliament
passed an Act for the abolition of the City Council, placing
the Government of the city under a Commission of three
members. This is the second time the city of Sydney

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 85

has been under such control. The Commission is to act
for a term of two years, ending in 1929, but the Govern-
ment has power to continue it if, in its opinion, the work
for which the Commission was appointed has not been
fully accomplished. One of the Commissioners was to be
Chief Commissioner and exercise the duties of Lord
Mayor. The Commissioners were given power to in-
vestigate the previous aldermanic administrations and to
take such action on the reports of the investigations as they
thought necessary. Several prosecutions under that clause
of the Appointments Act have taken place.

The great expansion of the city and suburbs
compelled the City Council some years ago to plan
largely for the future. One of the chief problems
dealt with was the supply of power and heat by elec-
tricity. At Pyrrnont the Council has a fine modern
power-plant, but, before 1925, it was working almost to
capacity, and the Council realised that it would have to
make extensive additions to provide for future and almost
immediate requirements, especially in view of the fact
that it was already purchasing electricity in large quan-
tities from the Railway Commissioners. In 1 928 the elec-
tricity so purchased amounted to 10,000 per month.

The Council decided to build a power-plant of a
size that would fulfil the requirements of the city and
suburbs for many years in the future, at the estimated
growth of population. Bunnerong was the site selected,
and the plans and estimates prepared showed that the
scheme would cost approximately 3,899,780. Up to
November 28, 1927, the expenditure on the work
amounted to 846,400. At the end of the year 1 928 the
works at Bunnerong were reaching a stage when the first
three units of steam-raising power and the first two units
of electricity-generating plant could be brought into
operation. On January 2, 1929, the Bunnerong Power-
house was put into operation with one 25,000 kilowatt

86 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

(about 33,000 electrical horse-power) turbo-alternator at
work, another standing by ready for use. Two of the new
boilers were at work, and a third was ready to take the
place of either in case of a breakdown. By the winter of
1929 there will be six turbo-alternators at work, fed by
eighteen of the big modern boilers. Bunnerong Power-
house is the largest in Australia and compares more than
favourably with any power-house in the world.

The total area of the State of New South Wales in-
corporated at the end of 1926 was 184,110 square miles
2520 square miles in municipal areas and 181,590 in
shires. There were 181 municipalities with a total popu-
lation of 1,637,600 persons j an unimproved capital value
of 160,646,393, and an improved capital value of
495,418,984. There were 136 shires, with a population
of 684,400 and an unimproved capital value of
154,614,441.

The Main Roads Board of New South Wales was
constituted under the Main Roads Act of 1924 and be-
came operative on January 1, 1925, making provision for
main roads, secondary roads, and developmental roads.
At the time of the passing of the Act the Government
initiated a new system of motor-car taxation, based on
the weight of the vehicle and class of tyre used. The
Main Roads Act provides that this taxation shall be set
apart for main-roads purposes. In addition the Board
is empowered to levy upon Municipal and Shire Councils
in the county of Cumberland "requisitions" for contribu-
tions not exceeding one halfpenny in the pound upon
the "unimproved capital value" of all rateable lands in
suburban municipalities and one farthing in the pound in
the city of Sydney. The Board has no power to levy on
country districts. The contributions made by these Coun-
cils to the Main Roads Board are matters of negotiation
and agreement on the pound for pound basis, although
the Board has the power to require from Councils contri-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 87

butions for particular work. The Board has no power
to raise loans, but the State Treasurer may borrow money
and make it available to the Board.

The revenue of the County of Cumberland section
of the Main Roads Board work from January 1925 to
June 30, 1926, was 900,405 5 the expenditure for that
period was 703,615, for the year 1926-7 the revenue
was 716,824 and the expenditure was 1,013,913,
absorbing the large amount of money left over from the
previous year. For the country main roads the Board
received 1,522,761 and expended 862,565 for the six-
teen months ending June 1926. For the year 1926-7 the
income was 976,656 and the expenditure 1,235,857$
the difference being made up by the balance in hand from
the first sixteen months' working.

During the first sixteen months of the Board's exist-
ence it received from the Commonwealth Government
the sum of 138,000, on condition that the State or Coun-
cils would contribute a similar amount for the purpose
of developmental roads. This grant was not continued in
the year 1926-7.

Victoria. The Imperial Act of 1 850, in creating Victoria
a colony, empowered the Governor to proclaim districts
under the Imperial Act of 1 842 upon petition by the in-
habitants, and to establish elective District Councils with
power to make by-laws for constructing and maintaining
roads and bridges, establishing schools, and levying local
tolls and rates. The clause in the 1842 Act providing
for the District Councils to provide half the upkeep of
the police within the bounds of each district was deleted
in the 1850 Act.

In 1 853 was passed a Roads Act which provided for
the creation of a Central Road Board for the care of main
roads, and authorised the Governor to divide the colony
into Road Districts within which local Boards, respon-

88 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

sible for the parish roads and with power to levy rates,
might be elected by resident property owners. This Act
was repealed in 1863, when a Road Districts and Shires
Act was passed. The Central Road Board was abolished 5
any Road District having an area of not less than 100
square miles and a revenue from general rates of not
less than 1000 might be incorporated a shire, with
powers additional to those of a District, including the
right to raise loans and grant licences. An Act of 18)4
had already provided that any district having an area of
not more than nine square miles, no part of which was
more than six miles distant from any other part, and hav-
ing a population of not less than 300 persons, could be
incorporated a municipal district. The principal clauses
of this Act were consolidated with subsequent amend-
ments in the Boroughs Statute Act of 1863. Further
amendments in 1869 provided for the development of
Boroughs into "towns" and "cities" as their revenue in-
creased. The first boroughs to improve their status under
this Act were Prahran, which became a town, and Ballarat,
which took the status of a city in 1870. The Shires Act
was amended in 1869, when the one hundred square miles
minimum was abolished and provision made for the amal-
gamation of small shires with boroughs.

The Local Government Act of 1 874 consolidated the
provisions of the Shires and Boroughs Acts and was itself
consolidated by the Local Government Act of 1890.

Melbourne was proclaimed a city by letters patent
on June 25, 1847. The city is now divided into eight
wards, each represented by one alderman and three coun-
cillors. The Lord Mayor is elected annually by the alder-
men and councillors from among their number and the
councillors, who are elected for three years, choose alder-
men, who are elected for six years. Two assessors for each
ward and two auditors for the city, are elected annually*
The franchise may be exercised by adults occupying any

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 89

house or shop of an annual value of 10, and by resident
householders in the city or within seven miles of it. Plural
voting is allowed. Geelong, incorporated a town in 1 849,
was proclaimed a city in 1910, the Acts governing Mel-
bourne being made applicable to it.

In 1899 the Victorian Government appointed a
Select Committee to inquire into the Local Government
system then in operation. Shortly after the Committee
was appointed its powers were enlarged to those of a
Royal Commission. This issued its report in 1902, at-
taching a draft bill which became in 1903 the Local
Government Act, consolidated with amendments in 1915.
Under this Act provision was made for the continuance
of municipalities already created, and the creation of new
ones. Any part of the State returning a sum of 1500
at a rate of hot more than one shilling in the pound could
be constituted a shire on the petition of at least fifty in-
habitants. Boroughs were to be areas not exceeding nine
square miles, with no point distant more than six miles
from any other and with 500 or more resident house-
holders and an income of 300 at the rate of not more
than one shilling in the pound on the annual value. Any
area not exceeding three square miles, distant more than
ten miles from the city of Melbourne, might be pro-
claimed a township on the petition of not less than twenty-
five ratepayers. Any male adult holding property of the
rateable value of 20 might become a councillor. The
councillors elect their own chairman, who, in cities, towns,
and boroughs, is styled "Mayor," and in shires "Presi-
dent." The franchise was on a property basis of 5 and
over, provided that owner and occupier were not enfran-
chised for the same property. Corporations liable to be
rated might enroll in their name not more than three
persons. Joint occupiers and owners, not exceeding three,
were entitled to enrolment. Plural voting was allowed
on a fixed scale. All land, including buildings and im-

go FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

provements thereon, with certain exceptions, was rate-
able at net annual value. A council might, with the con-
sent of the ratepayers, rate on the unimproved capital
value, adopting the valuation made under the Land Tax
Act of 1915. The Government endowed the shires and
boroughs on the annual amount of general and extra
rates received, but gave no endowment to cities or towns.

No alteration has been made in the Victorian Local
Government laws since 1915. In 1925 the Government
endowment amounted to 50,000, and an extra sum of
63,771 was paid as the equivalent of licence fees, etc.,
incurred under the Licensing Act of 1915. The whole
State, with the exception of French Island, is now subject
to the provisions of the Local Government Act, though
the cities of Melbourne and Geelong, incorporated under
separate and earlier Acts, are subject to it in only a few
details. In 1926 there were 55 towns, cities, and boroughs
and 139 shires incorporated in Victoria.

In 1918 the Victorian Government passed an Act
for the erection of a Power-house on the Morwell
(since named the Yallourn) brown-coal fields, to serve
Melbourne and other districts with electrical power and
light. Plans were prepared for a preliminary power-
station of 50,000 kilowatts, to supply energy pending the
construction of the main station. Twelve boilers supply
steam to five turbines of the Metro-Vickers type, each of
12,500 kilowatts. The generated electricity passes from
the turbines at 1 1,000 volts and is increased for transmis-
sion to Yarraville the main metropolitan distributing
station to 132,000 volts. The daily generation amounts
to 400,000 units. In 1924 Yarraville distributed to Mel-
bourne 58,147,655 kilowatt-hours.

Queensland. Under the Municipal Institutions Act of
1864 the Governor of Queensland was empowered to in-
corporate as a municipality any city, town, or rural district

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 91

with a population of 250 or more, on the petition of not
less than one hundred resident householders. The councils
were given powers for the construction and maintenance
of roads, bridges, ferries, cemeteries, baths, water-supply,
lighting and sewerage, and the prevention of the erection
of easily inflammable buildings in the "first-class divi-
sions." The Provincial Councils Act of 1864 gave the
Governor power, on petition, to proclaim any portion of
the colony a province and to appoint a council of not less
than three or more than nine members. Only one council
was constituted under the provisions of the above Act, and
it soon ceased to function. During the 1 870's certain Road
Trusts were established, mainly to eflFect minor improve-
ments.

A Local Government Act of 1 878 made provision for
the compulsory incorporation of municipalities and for the
division of rural areas into shires of the Victorian pat-
tern. The shire system was found to be unsuitable for
the needs of the sparsely populated colony, and in 1879
a Divisional Boards Act authorised the Governor to con-
stitute any portion of the colony, outside existing munici-
palities, a Division, with a Board of three to nine mem-
bers. Postal voting was provided for.

Under the Divisional Boards Act about 660,000
square miles of the colony were divided into 74- Districts,
some very extensive and sparsely populated. The Boards
were subsidised by the Government to the amount of
one shilling in the pound on the annual value, with an
endowment for the first five years of 2 for each pound
of rates collected, and thereafter pound for pound. The
Act remained in force until 1902.

In 1902 a Local Authorities Act was passed to re-
place the Divisional; Boards Act of 1879, This Act, with
amendments, now constitutes the principal Act. Under it
the whole State is incorporated into cities, towns, and
shires. All municipalities formerly constituted as boroughs

92 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

are towns. All shires and divisions are shires. An amend-
ment to this Act provides for a Main Roads Board for
the building and maintaining of main roads and bridges.
This Board has a separate organization and has its funds
voted yearly by Parliament, though the municipalities
contribute part of the money, repayable over a long period
of years. All minor roads and bridges are under the
control of the municipalities. Another government de-
partment exercises wide powers over natural watercourses,
under a Water Supply and Irrigation Act.

Apart from Brisbane, ten dries have been consti-
tuted in Queensland Bundaberg, Cairns, Charters
Towers, Gympie, Ipswich, Mackay, Maryborough, Rock-
hampton, Toowoomba, and Townsville. Each munici-
pality makes its own valuations, and there is little unifor-
mity. Theoretically the municipalities have unfettered
discretion, but in practice they are subject to limitations.

The power to alter boundaries lies with the Governor-
in-Council. Members are elected for three years, one-
third retiring annually. All adults whose names are on
the parliamentary roll are eligible to vote. All lands,
except those belonging to the Crown, or used for religious
or charitable purposes, are rateable on the unimproved
capital value. Rating is generally limited to one shilling
in the pound, but special rates may be levied for cleansing,
lighting, water, and tramway purposes. In a few in-
stances Councils may raise their own loans, but they have
usually raised them through the State Treasury.

The City of Brisbane Act was passed in October
1924, creating one municipal area of 384 square miles
or, roughly, the area within a ten-miles radius from the
Brisbane General Post Office. The city embraces the
cities of Brisbane and South Brisbane; the towns of Ham-
ilton, Ithaca, Toowong, Windsor, Sandgate, and Wynnum,
and ten suburban shires. The first Council of the new

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 93

city was elected on March 21, 1925, but did not function
until the October of that year.

The Council is invested with complete legislative and
administrative control of every local-government activity
within the area. Several of these were taken over auto-
matically when the Council operated in October 1925j
some of them were subsequently absorbed. One of the
most important results of the centralized Council was
the unification of Health Control, which had previously
been divided between twenty local authorities. Another
important department, which previously had been com-
pletely neglected, is town-planning. The Council consists
of twenty aldermen, one for each of the twenty wards,
and a mayor, who is elected by the voters, the franchise
being the parliamentary roll. Triennial elections are held
for the whole Council. The valuations for 1926, on the
unimproved land basis, were more than 20,000,000
roughly an increase of 4,000,000 on the previous in-
adequate assessments in some of the shires. The whole
area, except such parts as are used for dairying and agri-
culture, carries a uniform rate.

In 1926 there were 28 cities and towns and 124
shires in Queensland. The former have a total area of 843
square, miles and the latter an area of 669,05 1 square
miles. The total population of municipalities and
shires at the end of 1926 was 879,419. The rateable
value of the cities and towns was 29,952,796, and of
shires 48,473,508.

South Australia. A system of Main Roads Boards was
established in South Australia in 1 849. They proved un-
satisfactory, and in 1887 they were abolished and their
powers vested in Corporations and Councils. In 1 849 a
Municipal Corporations Ordinance empowered the Gov-
ernor to incorporate, on petition of two-thirds of the resi-
dent householders, any town, village, or hamlet, with

94 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

certain exceptions. This Ordinance was repealed in 1861
by the passing of the Municipal Corporations Act, which
provided for the Governor to proclaim any place a muni-
cipality on petition. Municipal corporations were author-
ised to maintain streets, common sewers, and water-works 5
to levy water-rates 5 to control public slaughter-houses and
markets and organize fire-brigades. A Consolidating Act
of 1880 was, in turn, consolidated by the Municipal Cor-
porations Act of 1890. Under this Act the Governor
may constitute new municipalities, or alter the boundaries
of those existing, on petition of two-fifths of the rate-
payers or owners of rateable property. He may, also
on petition, alter the number of wards in a municipality.

The District Councils Act of 1852 empowered the
Governor to constitute districts. All occupiers, owners,
and tenants were qualified to vote for a council of five
members, who had control of the roads of the district
and could license pounds, slaughter-houses, and issue de-
pasturing and timber licences. They could also nominate
constables each yean The District Councils Act of 1858
consolidated previous Acts. A new Act in 1887 abolished
plural voting, and under it Drainage Boards were merged
with Councils, which were also invested with powers pre-
viously exercised by Main Roads Boards.

The City of Adelaide was first incorporated in 1 840,
under a special Ordinance, but the Council was abolished
in 1843. From that date to 1849 the city was managed
as a Government Department and then, until 1852, by
City Commissioners. In 1 852 a Council was again elected.
Since the Municipal Corporations Act of 1881 Adelaide
has been subject to the Acts relating generally to muni-
cipal corporations. Some years later the municipal fran-
chise was thrown open to women, as was also the qualifi-
cation to act as alderman or councillor by an Act of 1914.

In 1917 the Government established a Local Gov-
ernment Department to maintain closer relations between

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 95

the Government and the Councils. The Department has
the administration of the Grants-in-Aidj it advises on
road construction, and co-ordinates generally the road-
work of the Department with that of the Local Authori-
ties. In practice it has no control over the loans raised
by the local authorities, but the Minister has power to
withhold the subsidies payable to the local authorities if
in his opinion the councils fail to carry out the duties im-
posed by the Act of Parliament.

In South Australia there is no central control of
local officers, except officers of Health, who are under
the administration of the Board of Health. All work
carried out by the aid of Government grants is subject
to inspection by officers of the central department. Dis-
trict Council accounts are kept under the supervision and
audit of the Auditor-General 3 the by-laws have to obtain
the Governor's approval. In spite of the wide powers
given to it, the Central Department has more of an ad-
visory than a controlling authority.

With the establishment of the Local Government
Department in 1917, no further amendments of the Local
Government Acts took place in South Australia. In 1925
there were 39 corporations and 1 55 district councils; the
corporations covered 64,080 acres, with a population of
238,009 and a capital value of 65,550,732, and the dis-
trict councils 31,023,175 acres, with a population of
294,749 and a capital value of 85,608,532. The assess-
ment value of the corporations was 3,300,048, and that
of the district councils 4,280,375.

Western Australia. Perth, the capital city of Western
Australia, was made a city in 1851, and in 1871 a Muni-
cipal Institutions Act substituted municipal councils for
town trusts. This Act was repealed, except in regard to
the city of Perth, by the Municipal Institutions Act of
1 895, which was also repealed by the Municipal Corpora-
tions Act of 1906.

96 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Until 1886 provisions relating to health and sani-
tary arrangements were included in the Municipal Acts.
In that year a Health Act was passed, authorising the
appointment of a central Board of Health and of local
Boards in the municipalities. The expenses of the Central
Board of Health were met by the Government, and those
of the local boards by a Health Rate levied by municipal
councils.

The Municipal Corporations Act came into force in
1906. Under it the Governor is authorised to incorporate
any portion of the State having rateable property yielding
750 on an annual rate. He is also empowered to recon-
stitute municipalities. Councils consist of a mayor and
from six to twelve councillors, according to population.
Every British male adult ratepayer, with certain excep-
tions, is eligible for election as Mayor or councillor. The
franchise is of British male adult ratepayers. All land,
with certain exceptions, is rateable on the annual value,
the annual value of occupied land being the average rent
obtainable, less 20 per cent for outgoings. The Councils
have specified borrowing powers and can claim to share
in the annual parliamentary grant, provided that they are
levying a minimum general rate of one shilling in the
pound and that they collect therefrom not less than 300.
Newly constituted municipalities, during the first year of
their existence, are allowed a subsidy of 2 for every 1
of the produce of the general rate.

A consolidating Health Act was passed in 1911, sub-
stituting the Commissioner for Public Health for the
Central Board then in existence. It is provided that,
where a Health District was conterminous with a Road
District, the Road Board should be the Local Board of
Health. Boards of Health may therefore be constituted
by municipal councils or Road Boards, or may be separ-
ately established.

In 1926 there were in the State 21 municipalities,

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 97

covering an area of 58,981 acres, with a population of
177,591, and property of a capital value of 36,882,613,
and of the annual value of 2,099,513. The Road Dis-
trict Act of 1919 empowered the Governor to establish
a Road District Board in any part of the State not in-
cluded in a municipality. These Boards consist of from
five to thirteen members! and, in addition to special func-
tions relating to roads and bridges, are invested with most
of the powers enjoyed by Municipal Councils. Their
revenue is derived from rents, fees, fines, and from gen-
eral local and loan rates. The rating is on the unimproved
capital value, or, in towns, on the annual value. In 1926
there were 1 24 Road Districts, covering an area of 975,828
square miles. In the same year there were 124 Local
Boards of Health in the State. Local authorities con-
tribute to the expenses of the fire-brigade service and are
represented on the central board.

Tasmania. Under the Tasmanian Rural Municipalities
Act of 1858 any town could be proclaimed by the Gover-
nor on petition of at least fifty qualified persons. The
control of such municipalities was vested in a Council of
six members elected by male adults with not less than 1 5
property qualification. The functions of the Councils
covered the care of the public roads and streets, control of
the police, water-supply, the licensing of butchers, the
registration of dogs, the administration of common
lodging-houses and impounding Acts. Councils could
levy rates, and the Government granted them subsidies.
A Town Boards Act was passed in 1 8 84. This em-
powered the Governor to proclaim towns, but did not
apply to any town situated within the boundaries of a
rural municipality. Provision was made for the elec-
tion of Town Boards, which had the administration of
the Police Act of 1865 with respect to the health and
improvement of the towns. The Boards were authorized
H

98 FIFTY YEARS OJF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

to levy rates, and later Amending Acts invested them with
additional powers. All separate districts, together with
rural municipalities and Town Boards, were abolished by
the Local Government Act of 1906.

The Local Government Act of 1906 appointed a
Commission to divide the State into not more than sixty
districts and to sub-divide each district into not less than
three nor more than five wards. The cities of Hobart
and Launceston were exempted from the provisions of
the Act.

Forty-nine districts were established by the Com-
mission, but the number has not remained constant. Under
the Act the Governor may incorporate municipalities, alter
boundaries, etc. There are three councillors elected for
each ward, and the Warden is elected by the Councillors
from among their number. Every male resident, or
every male having a place of business within the muni-
cipality, is eligible for election as councillor. Local fran-
chise may be exercised by every male adult, natural-born
or naturalized, who is a ratepayer, or by a corporation or
joint-stock company whose name appears on the assess-
ment roll. Plural voting is allowed. A Council may
define a Local District and assign to it a Special Standing
Committee with functions vested in it by the Council.
The Councils have very wide powers and may, by permis-
sion of the Governor, unite for the construction of certain
works. General and special rates are levied on the annual
value of property. The Councils have limited borrowing
powers and are entitled to Government subsidies.

The Local Government Act is administered by the
Minister for Lands and Works, who has power to settle
all disputes. Local by-laws must be approved by the
Attorney-General. Municipal accounts are subject to
Government audit. The Governor-in-Council has power
to regulate elections, to repeal by-laws, to receive and dis-
pose of petitions, etc.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 99

In 1926 Tasmania had forty-nine municipalities.
They were represented on the Fire Brigade Boards and
contributed towards the expenses, being authorized to levy
a special rate for the purpose if the municipal funds are
unable to meet the charge.

SYDNEY HARBOUR BRIDGE

THE work on Sydney Harbour Bridge, connecting North
Sydney and the wide-flung northern suburbs with the
City of Sydney was far advanced at the beginning of
the year 1929. Both pylons were up to road height, with
the approaches in a very advanced stage. Already suffi-
cient of the ironwork of the huge span is in place to give
a fair idea of the immensity of the undertaking.

The roadway from Broughton Street to Macdougall
Street has been formed and, when metalled, will be
opened for traffic. On the city side the tunnels have been
completed. In December 1928 Parliament passed an
allotment of 1,522,200 for the 1929 expenditure. The
total cost of the bridge to date is 3,348,908, and a fur-
ther amount of 2,751,092 is required to complete the
work.

FIRE BRIGADE

AT the beginning of the year 1877 sixteen Insurance
Companies in New South Wales had at risk the sum of
13,198,000. These companies contributed to the Fire
Brigade Fund a total sum of 1963. Fourteen other
Companies dealing in Fire Insurance did not contribute.

In 1877 the Fire Brigade had a staff of 27 members
stationed at ten brigade centres and working under almost
independent Superintendents. During the year the Bri-
gade answered 316 calls, of which 21 were false alarms.
The plant consisted of three steam-engines, four manual
engines, and two hand hose reels. Fire-fighting continued
in this form up to the year 1884, when the Government

too FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

passed the Fire Brigades Act, constituting the Fire Bri-
gades Board to take over the Brigades of the Sydney Fire
Establishment.

Before the establishment of the Fire Brigades Board
the revenue of the fire-fighters was derived mainly from
contributions from certain Insurance Companies. In the
year 1880 the number of contributing Companies had
grown to forty-six. Under the new Act the Board was
supported by revenue derived from the Government, the
Fire Insurance Companies insuring property within the
metropolitan district, the municipal councils of the city
of Sydney and of several other municipalities within a
defined area. At the inception of the new Act the staff
numbered thirty-seven. In the Metropolitan District
there were sixteen registered brigades and eleven unre-
gistered brigades, five of which were disbanded during
that year.

In 1909 the Government, under the Fire Brigades
Act, extended organised fire-fighting from the metropoli-
tan area to the whole of the State. The Board was
superseded by a Board of Fire Commissioners of which
Charles Bown was Chairman. In that year there were
21 stations in the metropolitan area, manned by 202 per-
manent men, and 3 1 stations manned by volunteers. The
equipment at that date totalled three motor engines, one
large electric ladder, two large horse-drawn ladders, six-
teen steam fire-engines, thirty manual engines, thirteen
hose reels and 137 horses. The first motor appliance used
in Sydney was a chemical hose carriage manufactured by
Merryweather & Sons, installed at Headquarters Fire
Station on December 1, 1904. The first petrol-driven
fire-engine, manufactured by the same company, was in-
stalled on September 7, 1905. In 1909 Mr Webb was
appointed Chief Officer of the Fire Brigades. The first
estimate of expenditure under the Fire Brigades' Act of
1909 was for the year 1910 and totalled 84,507, the

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 101

Government, the Insurance Companies, and the Munici-
palities contributing in equal proportions.

Chief Officer Webb died in 1913 and Deputy Chief
Officer N. G. Sparks was appointed Chief Officer of Fire
Brigades. In 1921 Sparks retired and Deputy Chief
Officer F. Jackson was appointed in his place.

The estimate of expenditure for the year 1927 was
325,104 and, under the Fire Brigades Amendment Act
of 1927, was payable as to one-fourth by the Govern-
ment, one-fourth by the municipalities, and one-half by
the Insurance Companies. This estimate covered Sydney
and the country districts.

In 1927 there were 75 Brigades in the metropolitan
area, manned by 419 permanent firemen and 152 par-
tially-paid firemen. They were equipped with 72 motor
fire appliances and four large ladders. In the country
districts there were 117 Brigades, manned by 56 perman-
ent firemen and 1097 partially-paid firemen. They were
equipped with 66 motor fire appliances and one large
ladder, 21 horse-drawn turbine engines, fourteen manual
fire engines and 99 hose reels.

THE PROGRESS OF TRADE AND COMMERCE
IN AUSTRALIA

THE discovery of gold in Australia effected a revo-
lution in all industrial relations. Many immigrants who
arrived during the gold rush having failed, for one reason
or another, to gain wealth on the goldfields, settled to the
trades and occupations which they had followed in the
land from which they had come. In later days the de-
pletion of the alluvial deposits drove many diggers back
to their former trades, and the population, tending to
accumulate in the larger cities and towns, formed artisan
communities.

Construction of the first railways (1854) and the

102 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

establishment of regular steamship communication with
Europe (1856) helped to encourage industrial activity.
New South Wales and Victoria (the latter of which re-
ceived responsible government in 1855) turned their at-
tention to the development of their agricultural lands,
and the consequent farming population increased produc-
tion and developed manufactures.

It is estimated that for the period 1851-58 the excess
of arrivals over departures in Australia totalled 450,000,
and if, at a moderate estimate, each migrant brought 25
into the country, the extra capital available must have
amounted to over 11,250,000. The goldfields needed
food and other supplies close at hand, and that need re-
sulted in closer settlement, which especially in New
South Wales displaced a number of squatters, forcing
them to seek fresh pastures farther afield. Town life
became more attractive, and the population showed a
marked tendency to congregate in the larger cities.
Through its proximity to the richest goldfields and the
wonderful expansion of trade caused by them, Melbourne
manufactures and importations soon passed those of other
Australian cities. In 1 858 the trade of Victoria was about
double that of New South Wales.

An important effect of the gold-boom was a quick
rise in wages and the establishment of a higher standard
of living among the wage-earning classes. The scarcity
of labour gave opportunity to raise wages, and the sudden
and often ostentatious prosperity of lucky miners aroused
in the breast of the artisan classes from which many of
the successful miners had risen a desire to strive for
a betterment of their own living conditions.

The years 1859-72 showed a downward tendency in
wages and the cost of living. Trade was steady. In 1 862
exports amounted to 12,065,000, and the value of the
oversea trade was 32 11s. 6d. per head of population.
Assisted immigration, the expansion of railways, and the

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 103

adoption of a protective fiscal policy by Victoria, tended
to make the country more self-supporting. Yet amid
this definite period of prosperity there was an era of finan-
cial stringency. New South Wales was paying, at one
time, 7^ per cent on debentures. In 1872 Australian
exports were valued at 22,578,000 an increase of 54
per cent in fourteen years, as against one of 440 per cent
during the eight years of the goldfields 5 rushes.

From the year 1 872 there was a sharp decline in gold
production from 7,500,000 in 1872 to 4,500,000 in
1886. Immigration fell away, and land settlement was
very slow. Yet in the years 1872-93 Victoria and South
Australia increased their cultivated areas from 2,500,000
acres to 5,500,000 acres. Prices of pastoral products fell
nearly fifty per cent. Against that large drop which
affected New South Wales more particularly, as a largely
pastoral country the colony benefited by a great increase
in the silver output from Broken Hill, the copper output
from Cobar, and the increased coal output. Victoria also
extended her manufacturing plants until in 1 889 her fac-
tories employed some 57,400 persons. These and other
influences tended to steady trade figures, and, though with
remarkable fluctuations, the value of oversea trade fell
from 24 per head of population in 1872 to a little over
19 in 1892.

During the 1870 ? s and 1880 J s private capital from
abroad entered Australia in large quantities, encouraging
unlimited speculation. The colonial governments, instead
of restricting expenditure, borrowed largely, and helped
to circulate an artificial prosperity. A small reaction began
in 1886 with an all-round decline in export prices, wher-
ever world-prices influenced the markets. A reduction in
wages followed, producing strikes in many industries,
more particularly among the coalminers of New South
Wales* In consequence there was a marked decrease in
*he influx of private capital, compelling a restriction in

104 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Government expenditure and unemployment increased.
During this reaction the financial institutions began to
call in advances, made in many cases, and to a far too
large extent, against land. In an attempt to stem the tide
the New South Wales Government passed an Act "to give
preferential lien on wool from season to season, and to
make mortgages on sheep, cattle, and horses valid, with-
out delivery to the mortgagee."

This Act appeared far too revolutionary to the minds
of the Colonial Authorities in London, who had but a very
small conception of even ordinary conditions in Australia.
Their financial advisers and their commercial law authori-
ties viewed the Act with much disfavour. In consequence
the Colonial Office vetoed the Act, not once, but each of
the several times it was re-submitted. However, the in-
sistence of the men in Australia who knew the measures
that would restore trade and commerce to normal at
length prevailed and the Imperial Authorities' consent
was given to the measure. Credit was almost immediately
re-established. The squatter, with good security to offer,
could turn part of the only wealth he possessed into money
by pledging the whole, and thus carry on his business.
However much it might perturb overseas jurists, it soon
became possible to learn of cases in Australia where a
grazier had borrowed money from one source on the
security of his sheep, and from another on the pledge of
his wool while yet on the sheep's back. The pyramid was
completed when a borrower, if possessed of the freehold
of his lands, borrowed money on it from yet another
person.

The effect of this Act was to enhance the value of
the Crown leases, and provision was made to enable mort-
gages to be given over them, while a registered lien on
a growing crop was legalised for the benefit of the farmer,
whether freeholder or tenant. It is probable that Australia
is the pioneer of a system giving effective security over

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 105

chattels that remain in the actual possession of the bor-
rower.

The financial crisis through which the Australian
colonies passed during the years 1 891-93 had a steadying
effect on the influx of private capital into the Australian
trade. During those years there was a consistent decrease
in oversea trade. About the latter year the Governments
restricted their borrowings and expenditure, and unem-
ployment increased. The period of recovery was long
and painful, the depression being prolonged by the low
world-prices obtaining during that period.

The vast effect of the crisis on trade may be gathered
from the fact that the value of oversea trade fell in 1 894
below 16 per head of population the lowest amount
recorded since 1851. In 1893 the value of the oversea
trade (both ways) was 57,000,000, an increase of nearly
38 per cent on the figures for 1872. But the population
had in the same period increased by over 90 per cent.

The crisis of 1891-93 brought some good with it. It
restricted, if only temporarily, the borrowings of the
colonial governments. It reduced imports, so that the
percentage of exports to imports, which in 1890 had been
83.4, rose in 1895 to 145. It imposed reasonable limits
on trade credit, which had been granted far too freely
before the crisis. It checked speculation, and ensured a
re-valuation of land more nearly approximating its actual
earning powers. Wages fell; but so did rents and prices.
Individuals were ruined; but the community found itself
in a healthier condition. Further, the restrictions on
Government borrowings and general expenditure turned
the flow of labour from the cities back to the farms and
stations. Recovery from the crisis was quickened by a
revival of mining, culminating in the vast gold dis-
coveries of 1894-95 in Western Australia. The value
of exports increased, with slight fluctuations, from
32,000,000 in 1894 to 79,000,000 in 1913.

io6 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Exports from Australia continued to rise steadily
after 1899, being in 1906-7 more than 50 per cent
higher than imports. The total oversea trade increased
to 158,000,000, the value per head of population rising
from below 1 6 to over 33 during the same period.

Federation placed in the Government's hands great
powers over the country's trade. Customs and excise were
handed over by the States and a uniform tariff instituted.
Under the Constitution Act the Federal Government has
power to make laws in respect of trade and commerce with
other countries and among the States; also to determine
bounties on production or export of goods and to control
foreign trading or financial corporations formed within
the Commonwealth.

In 1899, Messrs Ismay, Imrie & Co., representing
the White Star Line, disposed of their sailing vessels and
contracted with Harland & Wolff, of Belfast, for five
steamers for the Australian trade. The first of these, the
Medic (11,984 tons, 550ft. long and with a cargo capa-
city of 18,797 tons) reached Sydney on September 21,
1 899, via the Cape of Good Hope. She called at Ade-
laide and Melbourne and was forty-nine days on the
voyage. Since then a continuous service has been main-
tained by this vessel and the Afric, Persic, Runic, Suevic
and Ceramic.

Until Federation the various banks in Australia, with
the exception of those in Queensland, enjoyed the privi-
lege of circulating their own bank-notes issuing them for
sums as low as 1. In 1910 the Commonwealth Govern-
ment began to issue its own notes and brought the banks 7
privilege to an end by a tax of 1 per cent per annum on
their circulation. For many years the banks had been
paying a tax of two per cent per annum (three per cent
in Queensland) to the various State Governments, and
it is doubtful if they suffered any pecuniary loss by the
Commonwealth Government's action. It deprived them,

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 107

however, of facilities for supplying their numerous
branches with till-money.

A Commonwealth Act of 1910 authorised the Fed-
eral Treasurer to issue bank-notes, holding against them
a gold reserve of one-fourth of the total issue up to seven
millions and pound for pound for any sum in excess of
that amount. The rest of the money derived from the
issue of the bank-notes he might invest on deposit in any
bank, or in securities of the United Kingdom, the Com-
monwealth, or any State. The Act provided for full con-
vertibility of the bank-notes, and left to the demands of
the public the amount to be circulated at any time.

The Federation of the Australian States in 1901,
which involved the transfer of the Post Offices to the
Commonwealth Government, necessitated legislation re-
garding the future control of the Post-Office Savings
Banks in the States other than in Victoria, Queensland,
and South Australia, where the Savings Banks were not
under the departmental administration of the Post Office.
In 1900 Acts were passed in New South Wales and West-
ern Australia, and in 1901 in Tasmania, placing the Sav-
ings Banks under the control of the respective State
Treasurers,

In 1906 a change was made in the administration
of the Government Savings Bank of New South Wales.
From January 1907 it was placed under a Board of three
Commissioners, whose appointments were for life. An
Advances Department was created for the benefit of the
farmers and other primary producers. The liquidation of
the advances made by the Advances to Settlers' Board (a
relief Board created in 1899 to alleviate conditions aris-
ing out of the severe drought) was included in the Com-
missioners' duties.

The Great War of 1914-18 materially affected the
oversea trade of Australia, mainly through dislocation of
shipping and increased freights. The direction of trade

io8 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

was also greatly altered, but in spite of the sudden rises
in prices, due to war conditions, the recorded value of
trade during the four years showed no appreciable ad-
vance.

The average annual value of imports during the
period 1914-1918 was only 71,223,000 as against
70,129,000 for the four years preceding the outbreak
of war. In the case of exports the average annual value
dropped from 78,688,000 to 77,910,000. On a quan-
titative basis, exports during the four years of the war
were considerably lower than during the four years pre-
ceding it 5 and that in spite of the fact that Great Britain
and her allies made very large calls on Australia for food -
stuffs, wool, metals, meat, and horses. The ability to
supply these demands depended largely upon seasonal
influences. Unfortunately the seasons during the period
of war were not entirely favourable, the first year being
a particularly dry one.

Though every effort was made to increase produc-
tion to meet the national emergency, the lack of labour,
through enlistments, restricted output. Freight was diffi-
cult to obtain, yet in spite of the many disabilities consider-
able shipments were sent overseas. Special measures were
adopted for the marketing of produce, wool, wheat, and
metals, and these commodities were given preference in
considering freights.

Wool, during the first years of the war, was sold
in London under an Imperial Marketing Scheme. Later
an organisation the British-Australian Wool Realisation
Association (popularly known as Bawra) was created to
take over the control of wartime carry-over wool. The
wheat crops were handled by compulsory pools, marketing
under Government control 3 metals were sold under spe-
cial wartime contracts.

Imports dwindled, and manufacturers in Great Bri-
tain and overseas colonies became absorbed in the pro-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 109

duction of war-munitions. Inward trade was compul-
sorily curtailed because of the shipping shortage.
Moreover, the demand within the Commonwealth was
restricted because of the diversion of a part of the spend-
ing power of the Community to War Loans. Over
200,000,000 was raised in Australia for war-purposes.

For the first year of the war internal dislocation was
very pronounced. The oversea trade fell to 125,025,000
the smallest figures for many years since 1909. Ex-
ports at 60,593,000 were 18,000,000 below the figures
for 191 3 5 Imports by the same comparison showed a
falling off of over 15,000,000. During the second year
of war, and after, there was some adjustment of trade to
the new conditions. The years 1 9 1 5- 1 9 1 6 and 1 9 1 6- 1 9 1 7
recorded expansion in values of both imports and exports,
the total trade for the last year amounting to
174,184,000. Much of the increase, however, must be
attributed to deferred shipments and increased prices.

The last year of the war provided trade with a most
difficult problem. There was a very great shortage of
shipping, due to the depredations of enemy submarines.
To conserve space that year the Commonwealth Govern-
ment prohibited, or restricted, imports that could be
classed as luxuries. Thus the value of imports during
that year, in spite of the continued increase of prices, fell
by nearly 14,000,000 to 62,335,000. Partly because
of the unfavourable season, exports during the same
period decreased by about 16,500,000 to 81,429,000,
the total trade for the last year of the war being only
18,739,000 in excess of that for the first year not-
withstanding the enormous increases in the prices during
the four years.

The Commonwealth Bank Act came into force on
December 12, 1911. The establishment of a Common-
wealth Bank had been a plank of the Labour Party's Plat-
form from the inception of the Federal Parliament,

i io FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Andrew Fisher, when Prime Minister and Treasurer of
the Commonwealth, took with him to London in 1911
his permanent financial advisers and arranged that they
should discuss very thoroughly with the leading English
and French banking authorities the scheme of "a Com-
monwealth Bank of issue, deposit, exchange and reserve,
with non-political management;" and the Bank, when
eventually instituted, owed much to these discussions.
The new bank was to be an ordinary bank of deposit
the note issue having been disposed of by other methods.
It was to be controlled by a Governor, to carry all the
Commonwealth accounts, and to have attached to it a,
Savings Bank operating through the Federal Post Offices.

On June 1, 1912, Denison Miller took office as
Governor of the Commonwealth Bank and immediately
brought into existence the Savings Bank Department, the
Victorian Branch being opened on July 15, 1912. By
January 1913 Savings Bank Branches had been ex-
tended throughout the Commonwealth. On January 20,
1913, the Bank was formally opened for business at its
Head Office in Sydney, with branches in the five capital
cities, as well as at Townsville in Queensland, at Canberra
the then future Federal Capital, and in London. It was
opened without any capital but the credit of the Common-
wealth a sum of 10,000 borrowed from the Common-
wealth to meet initial expenses being repaid immediately
the bank operated.

A credit balance was shown on general business in
1914 and on the Savings Bank business in 1917, During
the war the Bank extended its activities to meet the new
emergencies. All the general financial business of the
Commonwealth was transacted through the Bank. It
floated loans to the aggregate of 257,719,989; financed
the pools for the marketing of primary produce; supplied
the funds for the purchase of fifteen cargo-steamers by
the Federal Government; and arranged for secret ship-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA iir

ments of gold from Australia on behalf of the Bank of
England. After April 1916 it was responsible for all
the banking business carried on in the occupied German
territory of New Guinea.

Following the war there came a great expansion of
trade. Shipping facilities improved with the large car-
goes offered, and values of imports and exports increased
markedly. The total trade for 1918-19 was valued at
2165299 3 000, an advance on the previous year of fifty
per cent. Imports went from 62,335,000 to
102,335,000, and exports from 81,429,000 to
113,946,000. The following year the total trade ad-
vanced to 248,798,000. Imports declined, but exports
rose to the very high figure of 149,824,000, or 28/4/1 1
per head of population a record up to that time.

The trade boom reached its height in 1920-1. Im-
ports reached 163,802,000, far in excess of those of any
previous year. This advance was principally due to the
despatch to Australia of orders which overseas manufac-
turers had been unable to execute earlier.

For the first time in the century, 1920-21 saw an
unfavourable balance of trade, the percentage of exports
to imports falling to 80.7. This caused a check in the
next year's imports and a reduction of 37 per cent, ac-
companied by a contraction of only 3.2 per cent in exports j
and the percentage of exports on imports rose to 1 24 on a
total overseas trade of 230,913,000. Thenceforward
trade assumed a more stable basis. The total for 1924-5
established a new record at 319,173,000, or 54/6/10
per head of population. Exports went very high, reaching
162,030,000. The high average price of wool and a
big wheat harvest at good prices made the export year one
of the most noteworthy, despite the fact that the imports
were swelled by the import of gold to the value of
10,000,000. Exports of wool and wheat accounted for
103,000,000.

H2 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Annual reports of shipping in New South Wales are
made from July to June. During the twelve months end-
ing June 30, 1928, the arrivals at the port of Sydney
were less than in previous years, but the tonnage was
larger and the totals vary little. In 1926, 7652 ships
of 14,961,630 tons entered, compared with 8366 ships
of 16,526,798 tons in 1927. In 1928, 7800 ships en-
tered Port Jackson, of a total tonnage of 15,808,966. It
is estimated that from July 1928 to June 1929 about
9000 vessels will have entered, their gross tonnage aggre-
gating 17,000,000.

During December 1928, the Water Board issued
statistics showing that 11,878 buildings were erected in
the Sydney area during the past twelve months, at a
total cost of 16,100,000. In 1927, 1,873,000 less was
spent, on 10,855 buildings. The report notes that during
the last fifteen years this expansion has been maintained.

In 1928 the actual number of new companies regis-
tered fell slightly short of that of the previous year, but
the total capital involved in 1928 was 39,000,000 against
29,998,000 in 1927.

To extend and improve the use of concrete the Aus-
tralian Cement Manufacturers' Association was formed
during 1928. Ten competing cement companies, with
plants in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tas-
mania, and South Australia, co-operated in supporting the
organisation, representing 7,000,000 capital. The Head
Office is in Sydney, and a Branch Office at Melbourne.
The Association does not sell, but is established to advance
the wider and more economical use of cement. A labora-
tory is to be established for research in concrete, in order
to assist in the economical development of natural re-
sources in sands, gravel, and stone for concrete making.

During the year ending June 30, 1928, more than
61,000 workers were injured a total of 11,000 more
than in the previous year. Under the Workers' Compen-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 113

sation Act, 2,000,000 was involved in compensating
them. All but 1.45 per cent of the claims were settled
by agreement. For the twelve months the premium in-
comes of the Insurance Companies were 1,746,934, but
the disproportion between the income and the compensa-
tion paid is more apparent than real. Apart from the
employers who insured, there are employers representing
an annual wage-roll of 30,000,000 who undertook their
own compensation insurance. The cost of the Commis-
sion during the year was 22,177, or 6500 more than
in the year 1927.

During the past fifty years the Banks and Insurance
Companies of Australia have kept pace with the develop-
ment of the Commonwealth in population and industry.
In many instances the progress recorded has been remark-
able.

The Bank of New South Wales has, in the fifty
years, increased its paid-up capital from 1,000,000 to
7,500,000 5 its reserve fund from 450,000 to
5,900,000j and its total assets to 88,982,585. In 1878
it had branches and agencies in New South Wales, Vic-
toria, South Australia, Queensland, New Zealand, and
London, numbering 150 5 now its ramifications extend
through all the Australian States, London, New Zealand,
Fiji, Papua, and the Mandated Territory of New Guinea,
and its branches and agencies have increased to 535. In

1927 it acquired The Western Australian Bank and has
now 100 branches and agencies in Western Australia.

The Commercial Banking Company of Sydney
Limited had, in 1878, a paid-up capital of 500,000 and
a reserve fund of 475,000. The paid-up capital in

1928 was 4,739,012, the reserve fund exceeded
4,000,000, and the assets totalled 63,154,170.

The Bank of Australasia had, fifty years ago, a
capital of 1,200,000 and a reserve fund of 272,710,
with undivided profits of 152,200. By 1928 it had

114 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

increased the paid-up capital to 4,500,000 and had a
reserve fund of a similar amount, with assets totalling
44,594,860.

The Union Bank of Australia, Limited, had a paid-
up capital of 1,500,000 and a reserve fund of 783,500
fifty years ago, compared with a paid-up capital of
4,000,000, a reserve fund of 4,850,000, and assets
amounting to 47,144,289, in 1928.

In 1878, the capital of the English, Scottish, and
Australian Bank, Limited, was 720,000. By 1928 it
had advanced to 3,000,000 and its reserve funds and
undivided profits exceeded 3,300,000. The assets
totalled 44,500,000.

The Australian Bank of Commerce, Limited suc-
cessors of the Australian Joint Stock Bank with a capital
of 500,000 has now paid-up capital and reserves
amounting to 3,255,000 and assets aggregating
18,623,000.

The National Bank of Australasia, Limited has
also improved its position. The paid-up capital has risen
from 782,550 to 5,000,000 j the reserve fund from
277,102 to 3,000,000$ and the assets have increased
to 45,622,056.

The Commercial Bank of Australia, Limited, had in
1878 a paid-up capital of 250,000, compared with
3,617,350 in 1928. At the latter date, the reserve fund
was 1,663,962, and the assets 30,448,786.

The Queensland National Bank, Limited, with a
capital of 375,012 and reserve fund of 32,000 in 1878,
has grown to 1,750,000 of paid-up capital, 785,000
reserve funds, and assets aggregating 15,137,664, in
1928.

The Bank of Adelaide fifty years ago had a paid-up
capital of 400,000 and a reserve fund of 115,000, to
compare with the present-day capital and reserves,
amounting to 2,220,000 and assets totalling 9,134,806*

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 115

The Commonwealth Bank of Australia, opened for
business in 1913, holds, excluding the Savings Bank De-
partment, assets amounting to 96,992,241.

The Bank of New Zealand holds, in Australia, assets
amounting to 6,206,536.

The Primary Producers Bank of Australia, Limited,
more recently established, has assets amounting to
2,334,000.

The records of the Life Assurance Societies of Aus-
tralia show that they have made very marked advance
during the past fifty years. The reports of the five
largest Life Societies show that:

The Australian Mutual Provident, with invested
funds of 2,600,000 in 1878, has increased its funds dur-
ing the past fifty years to 73,700,000 and its annual in-
come to 11,000,000.

The National Mutual Life, in 1878, had funds
amounting to 60,235, and has increased them to
28,509,399, and its annual income to 4,250,000.

The Mutual Life and Citizens', established in 1886,
has now assets totalling 1 8,567,527 and an annual income
exceeding 2,679,000.

The Australasian Temperance and General has ad-
vanced its funds form 2691 to 13,417,000.

The Colonial Mutual Life, established in 1873, five
years later possessed funds amounting to 63,628. These
have now risen to 1 1,000,000, with an income exceeding
2,250,000.

The City Mutual Life, now in its jubilee year, has
an income of 1,223,364, with Assurance Funds at
4,840,679 and admitted reserves of 275,000.

Among Societies of more recent origin is The Aus-
tralian Metropolitan Life, with assets of 892,992 and
an income of 255,142.

The total assets of Australian Banks amount to
512,874,993, while 217,545,735 is held by Com-

u6 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

monwealth and State Savings Banks. The accumulated
funds of the Life Assurance Societies total 151,202,597.
The aggregate for Banks and Life Assurance Societies
amounts to 881,623,325.

THE PROGRESS OF THE PASTORAL
INDUSTRY IN AUSTRALIA

EXCEPT for the few years immediately following the
landing of Governor Phillip at Port Jackson, the pastoral
industry has always held first place of importance in Aus-
tralia. As the country became known and settlement
extended, land areas were defined and apportioned. But
the grants of land were of an area useful only for agri-
cultural work and the depasturing of a few score sheep
and cattle. The men who desired to run large flocks and
herds could not find the land they required within the
settlements, and they were debarred by Ordinance from
trespassing beyond the declared boundaries.

Beyond the artificial boundaries laid down by the
Governor and his councillors there were vast unknown
lands, capable of grazing innumerable sheep and cattle,
occupied only by a few roving natives and wild animals,
few of the latter being carnivorous. Gradually some
daring spirits wandered a few miles into the unknown.
Others were bolder still, and presently the unsurveyed
lands bordering the settlements were occupied by quickly
increasing herds. At first the graziers kept a nominal
connection with the settlements where their permanent
homes were established, building in the wild lands tem-
porary accommodation, where grass and water happened
to be in abundance.

At the beginning of the year 1846 there were only
417,000 cattle and 1,891,000 sheep within the defined
settlement areas. But outside these boundaries roamed
698,000 head of cattle and 2,5 1 8,000 sheep. Southwards

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 117

from Sydney, in the Port Phillip district, the disparities
between the stock on the settlement areas and
the "outer" lands stock were even more marked. The
cattle and sheep within the settlement area numbered
30,000 and 351,000 respectively, while on the "outer"
lands wandered 200,973 head of cattle and 1,430,914
sheep. In the northern districts of New South Wales
most of which were later separated from the mother
colony and formed into the colony of Queensland
there was still a greater disparity. In 1884 only 334
runs, containing 7,440,000 acres, were within settlements.
Throughout the "outer" lands were huge runs, number-
ing in all 9207, containing a total of 308,669,026 acres.

In the very early days of the settlements the squat-
ters grazing sheep and cattle on the "outer" lands were
regarded as trespassers, although the Government recog-
nised them sufficiently to make them take out an annual
licence for grazing on the trespassed lands. They were
further assessed on their flocks and herds. At times, the
authorities made spasmodic attempts to suppress these
"trespassers," but without success for the squatter
had by this time become a power in the
land. In 1847 the pastoralists, within and with-
out the settlements, had secured from the Home
Authorities Orders-in-Council that established for them
a system of tenure. These Orders-in-Council provided
that lands in the colonies were to be divided into three
classes settled, intermediate, and unsettled. In the
settled districts tenure for one year was obtainable; in
the intermediate districts the tenure could be secured for
eight years j in the unsettled districts, for fourteen years.
During the currency of these leases except in the inter-
mediate districts the occupants could not be disturbed by
the purchase of any portion of the land for agricultural
use. The squatter could purchase any portion of his
lease at the rate of 1 per acre, and, on the expiration

ii8 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

of his lease, had a pre-emptive right to all or any part of
his lands. In the intermediate districts a new and unique
form of lease was devised. Although the nominal term
of the lease might be up to eight years, yet, at the end
of any year, the lease might be cancelled at 60 days' notice
and the land sold over the lessee's head.

These Orders-in-Council had a great effect on the
wool industry. The squatters, with some security of
tenure, began to make improvements on their runs and
increase the efficiency of their work. But the pre-emptive
right to purchase aroused much opposition from the
Governors and the public, for many of the squatters "pea-
cocked" their leaseholds by purchasing the land around
the natural waters, leaving the greater portions of the
runs without water-rights. Again, the fixed price of 1
per acre, at which the squatter had the right to purchase
any portion of his runs during the currency of his lease,
was strongly resisted on the ground that the price was, in
a very large number of cases, far below that which the
freehold would bring at auction.

After self-government was granted to the colonies
in 1855 the character of the land problem changed en-
tirely. The gold-rushes had brought a great accession of
population. The men who had won fortunes on the gold-
fields, and other immigrants, wished to settle on the land.
Many of them had only a small capital and were unable
to pay in full for the land they selected. Some means
to help them had to be devised.

The leading scheme to foster settlement was the John
Robertson Act of 1 861 . This Act contained two import-
ant provisions. First, the pastoral leases were granted for
only one year if within the settled area, and for five years
if outside it j but the whole area, surveyed or not, was open
to selection and sale at any time. Secondly, selectors could
pick a limited area 4-0 to 320 acres in any place, at 1
per acre, and pay as deposit one quarter of the purchase

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 119

money. They had then to reside on the land for three
years, making during the residence improvements worth
1 per acre. The balance of the purchase money they
were allowed to pay off virtually at will, with five per
cent per annum interest added.

The John Robertson scheme conditional purchase
by residence, improvements, and instalments played a
large part in the subsequent history of land settlement in
Australia. The underlying principle was copied by nearly
every colony e.g., in Duffy's legislation in Victoria
(1862) and in Strangways's Act (1869) of South Aus-
tralia. Great things were expected from the Act embody-
ing the scheme, and, after the main principle was modified
and surrounded with safeguards against abuse, it certainly
settled very large areas of land.

But the first effect of the scheme, as framed in the
Act of Parliament, was to precipitate a fierce struggle be-
tween the established squatters and the invading selec-
tors. A number of the selectors were genuine, wishing
to take up land for defined use 5 but the Act left a loophole
for the unscrupulous rogues who "settled" on the large
runs with the definite determination of compelling the
lessees to buy them out at greatly enhanced values. Faced
with disaster, the squatters took the only means open to
protect their property. They obtained "dummies" to
select land on their behalf, even going so far as to take
paupers out of asylums and place them on allotments.
They purchased heavily at auction sales and, because they
could with the help of their credits at the banks pay
cash and buy in large tracts, they beat the small financial
men in the auction-rooms. In consequence they emerged
from the struggle large landowners. The legislation that
had been intended to benefit the colony by establishing
closer settlement, succeeded only in creating much larger
estates.

In New South Wales, between 1861 and 1884, more

120 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

than 39,000,000 acres were disposed of in one way or
another more than half the area by conditional purchase.
Yet this vast alienation gave the colony only 21,000 more
settlers, and there were only 420,000 more acres under
the plough in 1884 than in 1861. In Victoria similar
developments took place during the same period, while
in South Australia, in 1891, 539 persons held two-fifths
of the alienated land, in estates of 5000 acres and over.
Much of the land in the big holdings was within the area
suitable for agriculture and was well supplied with road
and railway facilities. For instance, within fifty miles
of Adelaide there was an estate of 70,000 acres freehold,
containing good rich soil and with a 20-inch rainfall.
Similar cases could be quoted from the records of all colo-
nies.

So great had been the evils arising out of the John
Robertson Land Act that in 1894 the Government was
forced to take some action. Many expedients were sug-
gested. The one that found most favour was that the
Government bought up the large estates and had them
surveyed and cut up into small farms, thus finding room
for a large number of small farmers.

A gradual variation in pastoral and agricultural work
took place about 1870. Before that date the surplus
cattle and sheep had been boiled down for tallow, and
the sales of tallow, hides, and wool had become an im-
portant part of the pastoralists' incomes. The transport-
ation of meat, and other perishable commodities, over
large distances by means of refrigerating plants was at-
tracting attention. In 1 870 a number of pastoralists formed
the Sydney Meat Preserving Works. Prior to that date,
in 1 867, at the suggestion of S. S. Ritchie, the Melbourne
Meat Preserving Company was formed. But neither
company could undertake much trade until cold storage
had been perfected.

The pioneer shipment of frozen meat from Aus-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 121

tralia was made by T. S. Mort in 1876. He fitted up
the Northern at his own expense. Unfortunately the
machinery failed on the voyage. Mort was not discour-
aged. He erected large freezing works at Darling Har-
bour, and slaughter-houses in the Lithgow Valley. Again
he experienced failure, and he lost about 80,000 of his
own money and at least another 20,000 subscribed by
pastoralists. In 1880 the first successful shipment of
meat 4000 carcasses of sheep was sent out, from Vic-
toria, by the Strathleven.

New Zealand had been watching Australia's experi-
ments in transporting frozen meat over long
distances. In 1881 that colony commenced to
export frozen meat, and immediately became a serious
competitor with the New South Wales industry. New
Zealand was able to slaughter, freeze, and freight at
cheaper rates than New South Wales or Victoria. In
addition, she had not the heavy travelling of the cattle
from the country to the slaughter-houses. In a short time
she was seriously under-selling Australia.

Could the high cost of frozen meat be reduced?
While in London, J. H. Geddes had noticed that chilled
meat brought from l^d. to 2d. more than frozen meat,
and, as chilling was a cheaper method, he decided to ex-
periment on his return to Australia. In 1894- Geddes
made his trial shipment of chilled meat to England. The
journey took 62 days. Unfortunately the machinery
failed, and the meat had to be partially frozen again at
Port Said. Nevertheless the attempt showed that chilled
meat could be transported to England.

While he was experimenting with chilled meat ship-
ments, Geddes tried another experiment that of sending
live cattle to ' England. The shipment was successful,
only one bullock dying on the voyage. He next shipped
twenty head on the Maori King for the journey to the
home country via the Cape. On this venture he lost

122 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

108. On the same vessel were 48 live sheep j four of
them died, and the remainder realised only 18s. per head
in England. Yet the pastoralists were not discouraged.
In December 1894 the Echuca took away forty cattle.
This venture proved so successful that within a few
months a further 120 head were despatched. But the
shipping of live stock did not flourish. It was shown
that the expense, and the danger from death and accident,
were too great 5 there was also the cost of attendants and
feed on the voyage. It was found that meat shipped
better, and more cheaply, dead than alive.

By 1894 the problem of freezing and chilling meat
at a low cost had been solved. Thenceforward a great
development took place in the meat industry a develop-
ment that reacted strongly on the pastoral industry. Freez-
ing works were established in country centres. In Sydney
the Pastoral Finance Association treated for transport
during 1894 some 196,000 sheep, 6025 haunches, and
8500 quarters of beef. During the same time the Syd-
ney Fresh Food and Ice Company treated 318,613 sheep
and haunches and 20,000 quarters of beef. The Aberdeen
Chilling, Freezing, and Meat Preserving Company
treated 171,607 sheep and 123,191 haunches and boiled
down for tallow 206,1 85 sheep. The Sydney Meat Pre-
serving Company killed 1,050,383 sheep and 10,000
cattle, while the Bourke Meat Preserving Company dealt
with from eight to ten tons of meat per day.

The land question had become so pressing by 1899
that the various Colonial Governments, in spite of their
preoccupation with Federation, had to undertake the search
for a remedy. Various schemes had been suggested dur-
ing a few preceding years. Re-purchase, land-taxation,
and survey before selection (classification of land) were
the three most likely methods. All were tried at times.

Large estates lying within a few miles of populous
centres were held by a few men who were not putting

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 123

them to the best use. Large areas of these lands could
be used for farming wheat and other grain. Thousands
of acres along the river-flats and on the fertile plains
were raising only a few sheep and cattle. These lands,
cut up into small areas, would provide homes and work
for hundreds of farmers who could not at that time obtain
suitable land at any price.

Into the land problem came a new question. The
Labour Party had definitely pledged itself against the
alienation of any more of the State's lands. They, like
their political opponents, were anxious to gain a large
rural population, with holdings of sufficient size to pro-
vide the farmers and their families with comfortable liv-
ings, yet small enough to ensure that every acre was used
to the greatest advantage but, they insisted, the land
must not be alienated from the State. In the twenty
years succeeding Federation only about half as much land
had jDeen alienated by sales as had been disposed of during
the previous century ; but that land held a far larger
population and was divided into smaller areas.

The ideals of re-purchase, leasehold, land-taxation,
and survey before selection were applied differently in
the various States. New South Wales did not try re-pur-
chase until 1901, but then found that it was better ap-
plicable to her particular problems than the other reme-
dies, and has used it freely since. In this State the special
surveys of Crown lands for "survey before selection" are
complicated by allowing the old system of "selection be-
fore survey" to continue in practice beside it. In Victoria
re-purchase was commenced in 1898, but only in a very
small way.

Conditional purchase became the commonest method
of settling a farming community on the land. The gene-
ral conditions, applicable in nearly all the States, were:
Payment (on selection) of a deposit on the purchase price
of the land; residence on the land for a certain stated

124 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

period 5 improvements on the land within a certain time
and to certain specified values; and the payment of the
purchase monies in small instalments extending over a
very long term of years.

At the various times that Labour held the Govern-
ments leaseholds were the most common form of tenure
allowed to intending settlers. In Queensland, where
the Labour Party has held office for long terms, the lease-
hold area is very large. Leaseholds granted in New
South Wales are "in perpetuity," the rents charged being
2^ per cent of the value of the property. Re-valuations
tabe place at the end of the first twenty-five years, and
after that at the end of every succeeding twenty years.

Powers were taken by the Parliaments of all States,
except Western Australia, to compel owners of large
estates to sell. In this manner much valuable land has
been resumed and cut up for closer settlement.

In the early days of the land-hunger Victoria at-
tempted by the imposition of a land-tax to force large
land-owners to put their holdings to the best advantage.
But the tax imposed was far too light to have the desired
effect.

Yet, in spite of the haphazard way in which the pro-
blem of land resumption was tackled and the very light
taxes and conditions imposed on the accumulators of large
acreages, between 1896 and 1901 the cultivated area in
New South Wales was nearly doubled. In the whole
Commonwealth the cultivated area, between the same
dates, was raised from 6,500,000 acres to nearly
9,000,000.

The task of the States in building up a rural popu-
lation proceeded very slowly. In 1 9 1 1 New South Wales
had 5000 more agriculturists, Victoria 1000 more, and
Queensland 200 fewer, than in 1891. Between 1901
and 1911 the population of the Commonwealth grew by
1 8 per cent the number of persons engaged in pastoral

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 125

pursuits increasing by 36 per cent but the agriculturists
increased by only 4 per cent. Net immigration, during the
first ten years of the century, was only 40,000. There
were a large number of big estates, and in 1910 there
were 1152 freehold estates of over 10,000 acres, with a
total area of 30,600,000 acres 29 per cent of the land
being held in holdings of one acre and more.

The aim of the Federal Land Tax of 1910 was to
break up these large estates or to force the holders to make
better use of the soil. The first taxation of unimproved
land values was in South Australia in 18 84 5 other colonies
followed suit: New South Wales in 1895, Western Aus-
tralia in 1907, Tasmania and Victoria in 1910, Queensland
in 1915. Local Government Acts bestowed the power
to levy taxes on unimproved land values. Thus there
were three taxes on the same property. The State taxes
were mainly small from Jd. to l^d. in the pound but
the new Federal tax was more severe. Exemption for
residence was given on the first 5000 of unimproved
value ; absentees had no exemption. The tax ranged
from Id. up to 6d. in the pound, with an extra penny
on absentees' holdings.

In 1914 the tax was extended from freeholds to
cover leaseholds, and in 1914 and 1918 it was increased
for war revenue. For example, a Queensland estate of
200,000 value paid in taxes on land some 10,500 per
annum. A South Australian estate of the same value
paid about 6900. Apart from local rates, large estates
might be paying an annual capital levy of from three
to five per cent on the unimproved value of the property.

While the Federal Land Tax achieved part of its
purpose to break up the large estates it brought about
a strange battle of wits between the owners and the tax-
gatherers. Also it led to much litigation. Where the
estates have been sold, the prices have usually been satis-
factory to the vendors, but where the sales have not taken

126 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

place the owners have been able to meet the heavy taxa-
tion through the high prices ruling since 1914.

Between 1910 and 1918 land with the unimproved
value of 63,000,000 (about one-quarter of the land
originally subject to tax) had dropped from the taxation
field into the "less than 5000" class. Much of this
was due to the splitting up of large estates in families, to
avoid taxation 5 but it is probable that many large holders
parted with large areas.

During the above eight years owners of large estates
in the class worth over 50,000 unimproved value, got
rid of land worth 28,000,000 and bought land worth
only 5,000,000 (unimproved value). Absentee holders
sold about half of their estates, and many resident holders
took steps to place themselves below the taxation line.
Between 1910 and 1925 the number of estates of over
20,000 acres fell from 431 to 3 67 3 the number of estates
between 5000 and 20,000 acres rose from 1592 to 2967
and the number of those between 500 acres and 5090
acres from 32,657 to 60,829.

The effects of the Federal Land Tax, assisted by
the State and local taxations, were, in summary, these.
There were two absolutely opposite movements in land.
On the one hand there were men who were selling out
to large holders desirous of creating big estates, possibly
of turning arable land into pastoral country. Often the
small blocks thus disposed of had been obtained, under
the Conditional Purchase Act, from Crown or resumed
and sub-divided, lands. On the other hand, very large
holders were dividing up their lands either among their
children or among share-farmers, or were selling outright
to the Government for closer settlement. Thus, while
land was being resumed iand cut up for sale in closer
settlement, the same classes of lands were being acquired
for the formation of big estates.

The Seat of Government (Administration) Act of

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 127

1910 provided that the freehold of no Crown lands may
be sold or disposed of except in pursuance of some con-
tract entered into prior to the proclamation of the Act.
Leases for business, residential, or special purposes, for
99 years, are granted within the city at rentals of five
per cent on the unimproved value of the land, subject to
re-appraisement during the twentieth year of the term
and during each tenth year thereafter. Outside the city
area leases for not more than twenty-five years may be
granted for grazing, fruit-growing, horticultural, agricul-
tural, residential, business, and other purposes, at rentals
of five per cent of the assessed value of the land, including
improvements which are the property of the Crown.

Throughout the history of Australia the tendency
has been for the rural population to drift towards the
cities and large towns. Retired farmers settle in the
suburbs of the metropolis 5 the young people flock to the
offices, the shops, and the factories 3 the rural districts
entirely fail to retain their natural population, much less
do they show a normal and necessary increase.

To check this flow to towns and cities by the building
up of rural industries and by enhancing the social attrac-
tions of country life, is the great problem that confronts
the Governments of Australia. Further, settlement has,
in the older States, reached almost the limit of suitable
land for cheap extensive exploitation. Western Aus-
tralia and Queensland have still large areas of Crown
lands suitable for selection, but in other States further pro-
gress in settling a rural population depends almost entirely
upon closer settlement and more intensive cultivation of
the lands already in use. New South Wales discovered
in 1923 that she had to spend nearly 20,000,000 to settle
6000 new farmers. South Australia and Victoria can
find room only by extensive resumptions.

In 1928 Crown lands occupied under various forms
of tenure totalled 1 8 1,928,385 acres in New South Wales.

128 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

The area of the State not occupied is 16,104,885 acres,
the greater part of which is reserved for public require-
ments, leaving but a comparatively small area for ex-
pansion of settlement. In a ballot for sixteen blocks of
land at Honeybugel Station, near Nyngan, in August
1928 there were 4300 applicants. A few days into 1929
and 3000 persons entered into a ballot for thirteen blocks
of land near Narrandera. During the whole year there
has been very little settlement by migrants, only twenty-
four having been settled on farms provided by the depart-
ment. The latest report states that the prickly-pear
ravages have been definitely stopped in the north-west
of the State by the cochineal insect.

THE PROGRESS OF STOCK-BREEDING
IN AUSTRALIA

There were over 16,000,000 sheep in Australia
when the stock returns were made up for the year 1850.
By 1891 that number had increased to 61,000,000. The
Australian squatter has developed the Australian merino
as one of the most important factors of the world's mar-
kets. Nearly all the large stations have stud flocks for the
purpose of improving and producing the highest-grade
animals. Such flocks consist of sheep specially selected for
their superior quality and pure breeding a system that
tends not only to raise the standard of the flock-sheep
in general, but provides pure-bred flocks of known origin.
Stud flocks have been common from the early days of the
colony, as may be seen from the following prices realised
for stud merino rams:

John Macarthur, in 1825, sold merino rams for
300. In 1874 James Gibson of Tasmania sold "Sir
Thomas" for 714 guineas. In 1885 D. Taylor of Tas-
mania sold "Hercules" for 1150 guineas. In 1906 the
Hadden Rig stud of New South Wales sold "Dandy

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 129

Dinmont" for 1500 guineas. In 1915 the executors of
the late F. C. Body of New South Wales sold "Lord
Charles" for 2000 guineas. In 1925 F. B. S. Falkiner
of New South Wales sold "Birdwood" for 1500 guineas.
In 1928 F. D. McMaster of Dalkeith sold "David" for
5000. During 1883 the very big price of 3150 was
paid to John Cummings for the ram "Lustre," from the
Terrannallum stud flock.

Among the main established stud-flocks should be
noticed the celebrated Wanganella stud, established in
1858, which, with the failure of the fine-woolled sheep in
the hot dry districts of New South Wales, came into great
prominence. Later it was shown that strong wool alone
did not meet all the requirements. The original sheep,
of Bayly (Havilah) blood, were from Canally. Ram-
bouillet rams were imported and used in the flock. One
of these, "Emperor," was remarkably prepotent, and the
excellent and permanent qualities transmitted by him were
mainly responsible for the present-day qualities which
have made these sheep famous throughout Australia and
South Africa.

The second stud-flock of note was established at
Coonong by Sir Samuel McCaughey about 1860, and was
devoted to ewes of the Camden strain and Bayly (Havi-
lah) rams. Stud sheep from R. Q. Kermode of Mona
Vale, Tasmania, were also used in developing this flock.
In 1886 Sir Samuel, with the idea of improving the den-
sity of the fleeces, imported Vermont rams and ewes at
a cost of 50,000. Before this purchase the same strain
had been introduced into the flock through the progeny
of "Old Grimes," the famous Vermont ram of 1865. The
yolk and wrinkles ultimately condemned this breed, but
the experiment showed the Australian breeder that bigger
neck-folds and better thighs and covering could be put
over the sheep by selections from local Australian breeds.

An important phase in the development of the Aus-

i 3 o FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

tralian merino sheep began about the year 1910. Big-
framed sheep with plain bodies replaced the wrinkly type
formerly so popular. The Wanganella type gradually
came into demand not only in the different states of the
Commonwealth but also in South Africa. About the year
1914 the export of rams and ewes to South Africa com-
menced, depleting many of the best flocks in New South
Wales, Tasmania, and South Australia. Gradually, both
in South Africa and Australia the demand increased for
a plain-bodied type, developing size of frame and length
of staple, maintaining density, and increasing the weight
of fleece to over eight pounds.

The many advantages of this type are obvious. They
are useful not only for the wool, but for mutton; they
have a more robust constitution, a greater resistance to
drought and also to blowfly, and a higher value in the
fat-stock and store-stock saleyards. With the growing
demand for carcasses for export, together with the expan-
sion of cultivation, the various British breeds have become
more and more popular, especially for the production of
crossbreds. In 1 9 1 there were 45,560,969 sheep in New
South Wales.

By 1920 the number of sheep on stations in New
South Wales had fallen to 33,851,828 about three-
quarters of the totals for 1910. Within the next five
years the numbers had recovered, the stock returns show-
ing 42,925,177, with a marked tendency to increases.

Victoria had in 1910 some 12,882,665 sheep. "For*
Phillip" wool had a place of high esteem among manu-
facturers for its length of staple, fineness of fibre,
and brightness and purity of colour. Its outstanding
characteristic is its comparative freedom from foreign
matter, and it therefore usually commands higher prices
than the wool from any other Australian State. In 1920
there were 12,171,084 sheep on the Victorian runs, and-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 131

by 1925 these had increased to 12,649,898, about 200,000
less than the peak year for the State, 1910.

In 1910 Queensland possessed some 20,331,838
sheep, nearly twice as many as in the year 1900 and over
two millions more than in 1890. But 1910 proved to
be the State's peak year in sheep production, and in fol-
lowing years there was a small but steady decline in
numbers until 1920, when the flocks totalled only
17,404,840. There was then a smart recovery, and the
totals for the year 1925 show the sheep in the northern
State to number 19,082,252.

In Tasmania in 1910 there were 1,788,310 sheep, a
steady advance on the years from 1900 on. The years
following 1910 showed a slight decrease, the year 1920
having a total of 1,570,832. A slight recovery then took
place, the figures for 1925 showing the number to be
1,614,085.

Of late years South Australia made steady advance
in sheep breeding, the number for 1910 5,235,220
being more than a million in excess of that of 1 900. Then
followed a steady but small increase, the figures for 1920
being 6,359,944, and for 1925 but 704 less. In the
Northern Territory for 1910 there were 57,000, but from
that date the numbers quickly declined. In 1920 there
were but 6062 sheep, and in 1925 a slight rise to 6194
head. Most of the sheep at the present date in the
Northern Territory are on Government Experimental
Stations, with one noted flock on Brunette Downs Station.

Western Australia possessed less than a million sheep
up to the year 1880. From that date the advance was
rapid. In 1900 there were 2,434,31 1 sheep in the State;
these increased 5,158,516 in 1910 and to 6,532,965 in
1920. Then followed a slight decline to 6,396,564 in
1925.

Total number of sheep in Australia in 1926 being
104,267,101.

132 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Cattle. A peak year for the cattle industry in New South
Wales was followed in 1 862 by a severe attack of pleuro-
pneumonia.

In that year 2,620,383 head of cattle had wandered
the colony's pastures, but in 1863-4- the number was re-
duced to 2,032,522, and many squatters replaced cattle
"by sheep. In 1866 the number of cattle had decreased
to 1,771,809, and in 1867 to 1,728,427. From that date
cattle commenced to increase again and in 1 870 had passed
the two million mark. In 1870 there were 2,195,096
head in the colony, but by 1890 the figures had decreased
to 2,091,229. An official report, dated 1870, states:
"The principal breeds of Great Britain Shorthorned or
Durham, Hereford and Devon are to be found here (in
New South Wales) in perfection. Pedigree stock is much
sought for and realises high prices . . the colonial
animals are allowed to compete without restriction with
the imported at Agricultural Shows, although formerly

imported and colonial breeds were classed separately
?>

During 1905 there were 2,337,973 head of cattle in
New South Wales, including "large numbers of pure-bred
stock, high-priced and of high quality" (Stock Inspector's
report). Cattle were booming, for in 1900 there had
only been 1,983,116 head in the State. In 1920 there
were 3,375,267 on the run, but by 1925 the figures had
decreased to 2,876,254.

Government regulations in Victoria made it impera-
tive for squatters to have herds sufficient to justify claims
to good areas of land in the coveted "western country."
From the year of the Port Phillip settlement pastoral
lands were in great demand. In 1850, when the discovery
of gold called a temporary halt to pastoral activities,
there were 346,562 cattle in the colony, and the output
of tallow for the year was 10,009,246 lb., valued at
132,403, The cattle originally bred were Shorthorns

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 13$

and Herefords, but the taste of the Victorian grazier
tended always towards the Shorthorn, and gradually these
assumed the ascendency. Stud herds were formed, and
a number of animals from English stud farms were im-
ported. About 1890 polled Angus cattle were imported
into the colony and came into favour, the climate suiting
them admirably. By 1870 there were many stud herds
breeding for export to other colonies, the New South
Wales Chief Inspector of Stock reporting in that year that
"next to English stock the colony has been indebted to
Victoria."

During 1860 the cattle in Victoria numbered
722,332, including 197,332 milch cows. By 1870 the
numbers had risen to 776,727, of which 212,193 were
milch cows. At least eighty per cent of the stock was in
the hands of the farmers the best portions of the old
runs having been taken up by selectors. In 1880 there
were 1,286,267 head of cattle, of which 329,198 were
milch cows, and in 1890 the stock had increased to
1,782,978 head. By 1910 the numbers had fallen to
1,547,569, and then there 'was a slight increase to
1,575,159 in 1920 and 1,605,554 in 1925.

Up to 1869 cattle and sheep dominated most of the
settled areas in Queensland. From the first settlement
at Brisbane, and from the Northern Rivers District of
New South Wales, the squatters penetrated the State, at
first holding tenaciously to the coastlands, but later spread-
ing wide across the Darling Downs and the other great
plain-lands of the interior.

In 1869 the sugar-cane industry found a footing in
Queensland and gradually drove the squatters back from
the coastal districts suitable for cane-growing. In 18 59
there were nearly 433,000 head of cattle in the young
colony, and within five years that number had doubled.
De Satge's Journal of a Queensland Squatter notes
that on the Logan River, south of Brisbane, and in the

134 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Moreton Bay district, cattle country was mainly free-
hold, and that the cattle were largely used in dairying.
He continues that farther north there were many cattle
stations in the Burnett, Isaacs, and Burdekin valleys and
that the Cape York Peninsula was almost entirely taken
tip with cattle. On the rivers running into tke Gulf of
Carpentaria there was excellent cattle country, but only
half-stocked. The boiling-down establishments at Nor-
manton and Burketown were primitive, and those at
Bowen and Townsville were out of reach. The coastal
runs were well served in this respect with factories and
freezing works at or near Brisbane, Toowoomba, Glad-
stone, Rockhampton, and St. Lawrence. The inland
areas were served with establishments at Charleville, Bar-
caldine, Longreach, and Hughenden. All northern and
western cattle were travelled to market on the hoof.

There were 3,162,752 head of cattle in Queensland
in 1880$ by 1890 they had increased to 5,558,264. Over
the following years, to 1900, there was a rapid decline
of over a million to 4,078,191 head. By 1910 the
figures had re-established themselves to 5,131,699, to in-
crease to 6,455,067 by 1920 and remain fairly stationary
to 1925, when the catde in the State numbered 6,454,653.

During the early days of the colony of South Aus-
tralia the year 1860 must be considered the peak for
cattle. In that year they numbered 278,265, but in
succeeding years there was a considerable falling~off, the
numbers in 1870 being 136,832. Thenceforward there
was a slight tendency to increase, and in 1880 there were
283,3 15 head.

South Australia has always been more of an agricul-
tural than a pastoral country, the runs being restricted to
the "outside country," including the Northern Territory.
In 1895 there was a total of 636,824 head of cattle in
South Australia and the Northern Territory. The breeds
most favoured were Shorthorns and Heref ords, and some

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 135

very fine studs have been established in the colony, one
of the chief being that belonging to J. H. Angas, who
in 1 848 stocked his run with pure-bred stock brought from
England by the South Australian Company.

In 1900 South Australia possessed but 214,761 head
of cattle. In 1910 these figures had advanced to 384,862,
but in 1920 there was a decline to 376,399. By 1925 the
total of cattle amounted to 400,423.

In 1880 the Northern Territory began to make a
move as a pastoral country. There is a very great differ-
ence between the 1880 and 1890 figures. In 1880 there
were only 19,720 head of cattle in the South Australian
northlands. By 1890 the numbers had increased to
214,094. A marked advance was made up to 1900, with
257,667 head} then came a quick and large jump, in 1910,
to 513,383. In 1920 the increase brought the figures
to 659,840, and in 192 J the total number of cattle in the
Territory amounted to 851,351.

Western Australia did not make much progress as a
pastoral country until after the opening of the north-west
lands. Live stock was then shipped to the colony, and
soon the country was taken up and stocked as far north
as the Cambridge Gulf and the Kimberleys. In 1860
there were 32,476 head of cattle in the colony. The
numbers increased to 45,213 in 1870 and to 63,719 in
1880. Then came the great jump up in numbers, follow-
ing upon Alexander Forrest's great journey through the
Kimberleys which resulted in the discovery of many
millions of acres of first-class cattle country. In 1890
there were 130,970 cattle in the State. These increased to
338,590 in 1900 and to 825,040 in 1910. The rapid
advance stayed there. In 1 920 the numbers had increased
to 849,803 and to 891,564 in 1925.

Tasmania has never been considered a cattle country}
yet both pastures and climate are particularly suitable for
stock. It is reported that in 1 841 it was found profitable to

136 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

ship fat cattle from New South Wales to Hobart. In 1 860
there were 83,366 head of cattle in the island colony.
These had increased to 101,459 in 1870 and to 127,187
in 1880. In 1890 there were 162,440 in the island, and
these grew to 165,516 in 1900 and to 201,854 in 1910.
The steady advance was maintained through the following
years, the figures for 1920 being 208,202, and for 1925,
225,740,

Horses. Horse-breeding in Australia may be said to have
commenced with the importation of some excellent types
of Arab, Welsh, and English breeds in 1826. Before that
date the horses in use in New South Wales were of mixed
origin. A large number had been imported from Cape
Colony and from various parts of the East, especially
India. To these had been added some stud stallions and
mares imported by private individuals. As pastoral set-
tlement extended and the demand for horses for station
work increased, the breed deteriorated through careless
mating. "The services of thoroughbred sires being unat-
tainable or too expensive, colts, often of the most indiffer-
ent descriptions, were used in their stead and ran loose
with little mobs of mares and fillies about the settlers'
homesteads." Yet so great was the call for horses in the
early days of Port Phillip that even "weeds" commanded
fair prices. In consequence?, the production of any kind of
horse was pushed to the limit. Towards the end of 1 843
so great became the production that three of these "weeds"
could be purchased for the value of a good saddle.

There is considerable variety in the style and make of
the horses in the various colonies. In Victoria there can
be found the really heavy draught-horse. The draught-
horses of New South Wales are distinctly smaller and
lighter, in Queensland the horses are lighter still.

Partly on account of the suitable climate and partly
because the pastoral work on large stations requires a

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 137

constant supply of hardy horses, Queensland and Western
Australia have gradually forged to the front as the horse-
breeding States of Australia.

In 1860 New South Wales contained 251,497 horses
and consistently increased her numbers. In 1880 the
figures were 395,984, and in 1 890, 444,1 63. The steady
advance was maintained through 1900, with 481,417
horses, till 1910, with 650,636. In 1920 the horses in
the State numbered 663,178, and from that year there
was a slight falling off in figures to 649,534 in 1925.

Victoria possessed 275,516 horses in 1880 and in-
creased these by 1890 to 436,459. There was a falling
off in 1900 to 392,237 horses and then a great advance
to 472,080 in 1910. The year 1920 showed another ad-
vance to 487,503, while the years to 1925 record a slight
decrease to 463,051.

Between the years 1880 and 1890 there was in
Queensland a great advance in horse-breeding 179,152
for 1880 as against 365,812 for 1890. In 1900 there were
456,788 horses in the colony, and these increased to
593,813 in 1910. In 1920 the figures showed that the
State possessed 741,024 horses, but by 1925 the stock re-
turns gave only 637,436.

South Australia possessed 148,219 horses in 1880$ in
1890 these had increased to 187,686. There then came a
considerable decrease to 166,790 in 1900, and a marked
increase to 249,326 in 1910. In 1920 the horses in the
State had increased to 268,187, to fall to 244,1 1 1 in 1925.

In the Northern Territory there were in 1880 only
2372 horses. By 1890 these had increased to 11,919,
and to 12,562 by 1900. In 1910 there were 24,509 a
great advance. The period to 1 920 showed another large
advance to 37,837 and the increase continued to
46,380 by 1925.

Tasmania had 25,267 horses in 1880 and increased
these to 31,165 by 1890. The figures then remained

138 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

almost stationary, being 31,607 for 1900. An advance
to 41,388 horses came in 1910, and then a decrease to
39,1 17 in 1920 and a further decrease to 37,785 horses in
1925.

Western Australia had in 1880 only 34,568 horses
and increased these to 44,384 in 1890. Another ad-
vance to 68,258 came in 1900, and then a great jump to
134,1 14 in 1910. 1920 saw 178,664 horses in the State,
but these had diminished to 170,563 by 1925.

THE PROGRESS OF THE WOOL INDUSTRY
IN AUSTRALIA

THE first record of wool-marketing in Australia dates
from the time when John Macarthur forwarded a few
pounds of Camden wool to the English market, mainiy
as an experiment. He received so favourable a report that
within a few years he was sending bales to the home-
markets, and obtaining up to 10s. 4d. per Ib. In 1807
the first quantity shipment is recorded, the amount being
245 Ib.j it is said to have been of fine quality.

Local selling began when the wool-growers bartered
their fleeces against their bills at the Government stores.
Later, when private merchants were established, they took
the wool against goods, forwarding large quantities
to the London markets and receiving in return shipments
of general merchandise. Later, when the trade expanded
and money became more plentiful in the colony, specu-
lative buyers came into existence. The first firm of wool-
buyers of note was established by Thomas Sutcliffe Mort,
who had come from England in 1838 to the employ of
Aspinali, Brown & Co. He was subsequently one of the
promoters of the Hunter River Navigation Company.
Mort found himself out of employment in 1 843 through
the failure of his firm, and he decided to commence trad-
ing as auctioneer and wool-broker. In 1 845 he initiated

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 139

the firm of Mort & Company, with the idea of assisting
the small growers of wool to realise quickly on their
clips.

Five years after Mort founded his auctioneering and
wool-buying business in Sydney, Richard Goldsbrough
arrived in Melbourne and established himself as a wool-
broker. The fine clips of 1850-51 consolidated his posi-
tion in the trade, in spite of the goldfields attracting over-
great attention. In 1 853 he founded the firm of Golds-
brough & Kirk, stock and station agents, buying stations
on the Riverina. Four years later he decided to confine
his activities entirely to wool-broking. In 1881, in amal-
gamation with another firm, he founded the business of
R. Goldsbrough & Co., with a capital of 3,000,000.
After his death the Melbourne firm, whose Sydney trade
was almost equal to their Melbourne business, amalga-
mated with the Sydney firm of Mort & Co., founding the
present-day firm of Goldsbrough, Mort & Co., one of the
greatest wool-buying businesses in Australia. In 1880
Melbourne was the great wool-buying centre, handling
122,272 bales in that year, against Sydney's 50,000.
Gradually, as New South Wales devoted her pastoral
lands to sheep, the positions were reversed, and a decade
later Sydney sales topped those of Melbourne.

In 1916 the usual auctioneering of wool had to be
abandoned. In its place was evolved the Imperial Wool
Purchasing Scheme, which lasted for a period of three
and a half seasons and handled wool and sheepskins to
the value of 202,578,922. Negotiations opened up by
the Imperial authorities with the Commonwealth Govern-
ment resulted in the sale of the balance of the 1916-17
clip to the Imperial authorities at 15^d. per Ib. (on a
"greasy" basis), plus 50 per cent of any profits on re-
sale. A Proclamation, under the War Precautions Act,
prohibited the sale of wool and dry sheepskins, and the
trade was called upon to invent a new system of apprais-

140 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

ing the relative value of every lot of wool so as to bring
out the whole purchase at 1 5^d. per Ib. A central govern-
ing body was formed, consisting of representatives of
every section of the industry selling-brokers, growers,
wool-buyers, manufacturers, wool-scourers, and fell-
mongers with a Government nominee as Chairman.
This body was known as the Commonwealth of Australia
Central Wool Committee and sat under the Chairmanship
of Sir John Higgins. Detailed work in each State was
delegated to "State Wool Committees," with similar re-
presentation to that of the Central Committee. A tech-
nical advisory board determined a practical scheme of
appraising wool, and created a "table of limits" which
constituted the most complete classification of wool ever
attempted. It divided the clip of approximately 1,800,000
bales into 848 distinct types, and fixed the price for each
in its relation to the purchase price of 1 5^d. per Ib.

So successful was the Board that it was continued
after the war, to 1920. The total number of bales handled
by the Central Wool Committee was 7,156,616, which,
plus charges, were valued at 166,977,382. It purchased
under appraisement 179,763 bales of sheepskins (con-
taining 17,398,580 skins), valued at 5,948,540. Wool-
growers and others received: first distribution, 5 per cent
of appraised value, paid in cash (October 1920),
7,653,000} second distribution, 14.30951 per cent of
appraised value, paid (July 30, 1921), in priority wool
certificates, 10,000,000 (July 30, 1921) and in fully
paid one-pound shares in the British-Australian Wool
Realisation Association, Limited, 12,000,000 (July 30,
1 92 1 ) . Thus the grand total was 202,578,922.

Wool-marketing made great progress after the Great
War. In 1924-25 there were total local sales of
1,587,750 bales, of which 653,200 were sold in Sydney,
382,743 in Melbourne, 165,693 in Adelaide, 84,903 in
Perth, 267,641 in Brisbane, and 33,570 in Tasmania. In

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 141

the following season the sales were: Sydney, 1,078,216;
Melbourne, 690,284; Adelaide, 250,216; Perth, 124,396;
Brisbane, 477,337; Tasmania, 34,885.

From all Australian ports between July and Decem-
ber 1928, there were despatched 711,826 bales of wool,
valued at 30 per bale, or a total of 21,354,280. In
June the National Council of Wool-selling Brokers of
Australia estimated that the 1928-29 clip would realise
2,462,000 bales. In December it altered its estimate to
2,577,000 bales. This clip was sold for 60,873,662 and
was a record clip for Australia, the average price being
24 19s. 1 Id. per bale. The total production for 1926-27
was 2,712,438 bales, but the prices were lower and the
wool-cheques reached only 55,610,468 an average of
21 13s.

Unofficial figures place the 1928-29 clip at 2,600,000
bales. Even if the Council's estimates are accepted, the
wool-cheque will be over 64,000,000. A record price,
since 1924-25, of 43^-d. per pound was paid on the Sydney
market in December 1928.

Sheep exports are growing large. For the present
South Africa is the chief buyer, but Russia has recently bid
for high-class sheep, with the intention of stocking her
immense pastures for the wool-trade. South Africa began
importing Australian sheep about 1902; that country's
wool industry had previously been hardly worth men-
tioning, but at the end of June 1927 the South African
flocks totalled about 40,000,000 head, showing an in-
crease of 7,000,000 in three years, the increase in wool-
production being correspondingly great. Ten years ago
experts stated that South Africa could not carry more than
30,000,000 sheep; six months ago another expert declared
that "in thirty or forty years South Africa will probably
shear 80,000,000 sheep."

142 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

THE PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE IN
AUSTRALIA

THE growth of agriculture in Australia has been largely
influenced by railway construction. In 1850 the first
year of the gold-boom there were nearly 200,000
acres under cultivation. The discovery of gold had for
the time a retarding influence on agriculture, bringing the
acreage down by nearly half through the scarcity of labour*
In 1852 there were only 132,000 acres under crop. But
when commercial life adapted itself to the new conditions
the acreage began to increase again j in 1858 there were
223,000 acres under cultivation. When the Hawkes-
bury and Hunter Districts were connected with the coast
by railways, agriculture advanced to an acreage of 3 1 9,000,,
and through the two following years to 451,000 acres.
In 1 869 the railway penetrated southwards to the Goul-
burn plains and westwards to Bowenfels. In 1870 the
acreage under cultivation was 426,976. From 1875 the
rich Bathurst plains were brought into communication
with the coastal districts, and in 1880 the area under the
plough reached a total of 706,000 acres. In 1870 experts
stated: "we can produce whfcat of a quality that can stand
the competition of the world, but we cannot do it at the
necessary price. The cost of labour is too expensive for
rude processes, and we have not yet attained to such pro-
ficiency in the use of labour-saving machinery as would
counterbalance the rate of wages." Up to 1 896 Victoria
supplied New South Wales with a very material portion
of the f ood-stuffs required by the mother colony.

Tasmania, turning her cultivation more towards oats,
peas, potatoes, and hops than wheat, developed acreage
slowly. In addition, her lands were more heavily tim-
bered and clearing was more expensive than on the main-
land. Progress was also hindered by the old free-grant
system of alienating large areas. For instance, up to

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 143

1864, 2,960,765 acres had been given away, and during
the same period only 1,278,748 acres had been sold and
this in a small colony where great tracts in the centre and
west were too rugged and too forest-covered to make cul-
tivation profitable, and any great development was impos-
sible after the early settlers had absorbed the rich and
easily attained patches. In 1860 Tasmania had 152,860
acres under cultivation. These were a legacy from the
days of the gold-rush in Victoria and New South Wales,
when those colonies looked to Tasmania for many food-
stuffs required to feed their fast-growing population of
miners and traders.

Agriculture in Victoria received a great impetus from
the protective tariff of 1871. The rates provided on im-
ports were one shilling for every hundred-pound weight
of grain and produce of every kind, twenty shillings a ton
on onions and potatoes, and so on. And, it must not be
forgotten that these duties did not apply only to oversea
products, but to imports from the sister colonies surround-
ing Victoria. At the time when this tariff induced more
farmers to put land under cultivation there were in the
colony over 315 miles of railways to bring the crops to
the populous areas. Yet Victoria was obliged to import
a million bushels of wheat yearly.

In 1885 the Government of Victoria appointed a
Commission to inquire what steps were necessary to fur-
ther the production of vegetables and other products in
larger quantities. In its report the Commission recom-
mended a "judicious system of offering bonuses for new
vegetable products and for the further development of
vegetable products already established." By the end of
1890 over 370,000 had been paid in bonuses, and in
1894 the Commission claimed great credit for good work
accomplished.

Victoria possessed great mallee lands, occupying the
great bend of the Murray Valley from Swan Hill to

14L FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Murray Bridge, and in 1880 it decided to bring these
under cultivation. Nearly eleven million acres of this
country were cleared by heavy rollers and wooden frames
dragged by traction engines. The timber thus crushed
down was burned off, and the land was ploughed by
stump-jumping ploughs (a recent local invention) and
harrowed with stump-jumping harrows. The stumps of
the trees were left to rot out or to be removed by other
means at the farmers' convenience. In 1860 Victoria had
under crop 387,282 acres. In 1880 these had increased
to 1,548,809 and in 1900 to 3,114,132.

When Queensland was part of the colony of New
South Wales, the land was considered purely pastoral.
It was not until some time after the northlands had been
created a separate colony that agriculture was seriously
considered. At the date of the separation Queensland
had only 3557 acres under cultivation, mainly about Bris-
bane, Warwick, and Toowoomba. During the American
Civil War, and the consequent shortage of cotton in
Europe, experiments were made in cotton-growing and
for a few years Queensland cotton-growers made good
money. When peace was declared in America the price
of cotton fell, and the new Australian industry was nearly
ruined.

While cotton-growing had occupied the Queensland
farmers' attention certain people had been experimenting
with sugar-cane. When cotton failed, a serious attempt
was made to grow cane commercially. The influence of
the successful cultivation of sugar-cane on Queensland
agriculture can be seen from the acreage under cultivation
during the intervening years. In 1860-61 there were
3353 acres under cultivation, none of which were under
sugar-cane. In 1870-71 there were 52,210 acres, of
which 6342 acres held cane. In 1880-81 the acreage had
grown to 1 13,978, and of this 20,224 acres were in cane.

Three great inventions in this decade promoted the

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 145

advance of agriculture in Australia, and, indeed, in the
whole world. The first was the stump- jump plough, in-
vented by Robert Bowyer Smith, of Ardrossan, South
Australia. In 1876 he and his brother Clarence Herbert
constructed a plough with shares contained in a frame,
working independently of each other. If one of the shares
struck a stump or other obstacle, it automatically rose,
passed over the obstacle, and re-entered the ground. On
February 19, 1877, this plough was registered, but not
patented. In 1881 J. W, Stott, a blacksmith of Alma,
South Australia, who had constructed a similar plough,
joined the Smiths and made improvements in their ma-
chine. In the new model several ploughs were hinged
to an angle-bar in such a way that each had the same
length of beam, and the beams were cranked so as to
permit each mould-board to pass the adjoining beam.
Without the stump-jumping plough the mallee lands of
Victoria might never have been successfully cultivated.
In 1881, owing to the use of the new plough, only 55
acres out of 426,338 taken up were forfeited, whereas
the figures for the previous year (when the old-style
plough was in use) were 2345 acres out of 34,245.

The second invention of note was the stripper-
thresher. Shortage of labour in 1 843 led J. W. Bull to
experiment with a threshing machine to take the grain
from the standing straw. Bull's work was improved on
by J. Ridley, whose stripper revolutionised grain-growing
by reducing the cost of harvesting from three shillings
to threepence halfpenny. In 1884 H. V. McKay com-
bined the previous inventions with new features in his
"Harvester" stripping, threshing, and winnowing by the
one machine.

The third and perhaps the greatest invention was
the life-work of William James Farrer. In 1 875 he en-
tered the New South Wales Department of Lands, and
worked in the Dubbo, Cobar, and Cooma Districts until

146 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

1886. In that year he resigned his appointment and set-
tled at Lambrigg, near Queanbeyan, where he began to
experiment in hybridizing wheats, endeavouring to find
rust-resisting or rust-proof varieties. For eleven years
Fairer pursued his experiments on his own farm, develop-
ing his researches to include improvements in the milling
values of wheats. In this endeavour he received the
ungrudging help of F. B. Guthrie, chemist of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture. In 1898 Farrer was made Experi-
mentalist to the Department of Agriculture, a position
which enabled him to obtain the widest field and greatest
facilities for work which the Government had come to
recognise as of vital importance to Australia.

The invention of the stump-jumping plough and the
harvester resulted in a great increase of grain production.
In New South Wales the improved methods were stimu-
lated by the strain put upon the owners of unproductive
lands by Reid's "unimproved values" land-tax. In 1 895-6
there were 1,348,600 acres under cultivation. South
Australia was devoting more and more of her lands to
cereals. In 1880-81 she had 2,087,237 acres under crop,
of which 1,735,542 acres (or 83 per cent) were in wheat.
In 1900-1 she had 2,369,680 acres under crop, and of
this area 1,913,247 were occupied by wheat. In Queens-
land there were, in 1880-1, 113,978 acres under crop, of
which 20,224 (or 17f per cent) were occupied by sugar-
cane. In 1900-1 the colony had 457,397 acres in culti-
vation, and 108,535 acres (or 23f per cent) were growing
sugar-cane.

In 1905 Western Australia turned from the develop-
ment of her goldfields to her golden fields of the south-
lands. The areas along the York-Albany Railway were
settled, as were the coastal lands between Perth and Bun-
bury. In 1880-1 the State cropped only 57,707 acres,
but in 1900-1 it had put 201,338 acres under grain. In
1895 the total area of wheat throughout the Common-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 147

wealth was 3,500,000 acres. In 1898 the Chambers of
Commerce in several colonies established definite f.a.q.
(fair average quality) standards, thereby much assisting
the wheat farmer.

In 1915-16 there were 5,796,376 acres under culti-
vation in New South Wales more than double the acre
age under crops (2,840,235 acres) in 1905-6. The
drainage of manhood from the country, due to the war,
was not compensated for by improved machinery and
methods, and from 1916 the cultivated area dwindled.
In new lands under cultivation Tasmania continued a
steady increase on the 1900 figures, drifting, however,
more to orchard work and intensive cultivation. In
1900-1 Victoria was easily the premier grain-growing
State, having for that year 3,1 14,132 acres, and in 1920-
21, 4,489,503 acres, under cultivation. Queensland in
1900-1 had 457,397 acres under cultivation, of which 43
per cent were under cane-crops. In 1920-21 the cropped
area rose to 779,497 acres, but of this only 20 per cent
grew cane. In 1900-1 South Australia had 2,369,680
acres under cultivation, and in 1920-21 had increased
these to 3,231,083.

In 1920-21 there were 145,873,850 bushels of wheat
grown in Australia, averaging 16.08 bushels per acre. In
1921-22 the crop had fallen to 128,868,842 bushels, aver
aging 13.28 bushels to the acre. In 1 922-23 the yield had
fallen still further, to 109,454,842 bushels, averaging
11.21 bushels. In 1923-1924 there was an upward ten-
dency to 124,993,271 bushels, at 13.10 bushels to the
acre. In 1924-25 that tendency was still maintained, and
the wheat totalled 164,558,734 bushels, averaging 15-20
bushels.

During the same years the net exports of wheat and
flour were as follows: in 1920-21, wheat, 76,791,883
bushels, flour, 11,486,250 bushels; 1921-22, wheat,
99,946,993 bushels, flour, 11,989,915 bushels; 1922-23,

i 4 8 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

wheat, 31,510,334 bushels, flour, 18,936,048 bushels;
1923-24, wheat, 59,910,480 bushels, flour, 24,537,168
bushels.

In 1924-25 New South Wales had 3,549,367 acres
under wheat. In Victoria in the same year 2,705,323
acres were under that grain. South Australia had
2,499,852 acres, and Western Australia 1,867,614.
Queensland grew wheat on 1 89,145 acres, while Tasmania
sowed only 12,954.

For the year 1928-29 the Australian wheat crop is
estimated to produce an exportable surplus of 140,000,000
bushels, which at 4s. 6d. per bushel will realise
31,500,000. In New South Wales the Government Sta-
tistician estimates a crop of 48,000,000 bushels, but un-
official estimates place the crop as high as 50,000,000 or
55,000,000 bushels. The Department of Agriculture
gives the official estimate as 45,000,000.

The National Bank Magazine estimates that the
1928-29 Australian wheat crop will produce 30,000,000
more bushels than in 1927-28. In. placing Victoria's
wheat-yield at 40,000,000 bushels the journal is giving
that State credit for an increase of 14,000,000 bushels
over the 1927-28 crop. In the November issue of the
same journal the New South Wales wheat crop for 1928-
29 was estimated at 43,000,000 bushels, but in a later issue
it is admitted that the estimate was too low.

In New South Wales the wheat-growing area has
Increased from under 4,000,000 acres in 1927 to about
4,500,000 acres for the last season's sowing. All the indi-
cations point to a much increased sowing for next season.

The wheat yield in 1927-28 was just under
28,000,000 bushels. If the 1928-29 crop reaches fifty to
fifty-five million bushels it will be the second highest
crop in the State's history, and should return the farmers
at least 11,000,000. At last sowing, large areas in the
Lake Cargelligo region and beyond, hitherto regarded as

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 149

waste country, were put down to wheat and yielded
heavily.

Maize, wheat, and oats were the first crops grown
on Australian soil. In the earliest days maize was the
main cropj later, wheat showed a tendency to usurp its
place as a grain food. Hitherto the oats crops have never
threatened the supremacy of wheat. Thomas Cherry, a
former Victorian Director of Agriculture, considered that
the oats crop "should be made to fill a much more import-
ant sphere in farming operations in all parts of the closer
settlement country than it does at present."

During the 1900's wheat was a prominent crop in
New South Wales and South Australia. In Victoria oats
were grown more extensively than in all the other colo-
nies put together. Tasmania was always a considerable
grower of this cereal.

Though oats are a standard crop in Australia in all
States, yet at no time in the history of the country has it
been able to grow enough for its requirements. Since
1910 the cultivation of this grain has materially increased
in South Australia and Western Australia. During the
year 1924-25, New South Wales had 123,517 acres of
oats in crop, yielding 2,511,400 bushels. Victoria's crop
was on 517,229 acres and produced 9,572,003 bushels.
Queensland had only 401 acres under oats and from the
crop took 63,912 bushels. South Australia took 1,939,415
bushels from 155,214 acres. Western Australia had
318,982 acres under oats and drew 4,241,074 bushels j
while Tasmania took off 1,065,933 bushels from 46,175
acres.

Attempts to acclimatise cotton in Australia have been
made from the first days of the colony. At that time it
was considered that the cotton plant was not indigenous to
the country. It was not until 1847 that it was even sus~

150 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

pected that a lint-bearing gossypium was native, and it was
only in 1904 that the plant was discovered on the main-
land.

The American civil war stimulated the growing of
cotton in Australia. Between 1862-71 some 26,000,000
Ib. of cotton were exported, and the area cultivated for
cotton increased from 320 acres in 1862 to 10,974 acres
in 1870 and 14,500 acres in 1871. Queensland cultiva-
tors then began to feel the effects of the renewed Ameri-
can competition, and from that date cotton-growing began
to decline, until in 1917 only 87 acres were under culti-
vation.

In 1888 the Queensland Government tried to revive
the industry by offering a bonus of 5000 to the first
person or company who manufactured cotton goods to that
value from fibre grown in the colony. The Ipswich Cot-
ton Company thereupon established a factory and pro-
duced the goods, cotton cultivation in the West Moreton
district being greatly stimulated by its operations. How-
ever, the firm was obliged to close down in 1897, owing
to financial difficulties.

Much valuable information on cotton-growing has
been acquired by Queensland growers during the past
twenty years through the experiments initiated and en-
couraged by the Government. These experiments were
undertaken not only in Queensland where in 1901 Dr
Thomatis obtained the hybrid perennial "Caravonica"
but also in the Northern Territory and Western Australia.
In 1904 the Curator of the Botanic Garden at Darwin
(N.T.) reported that, besides the native cotton found at
the Wildman River, cotton plants of cultivated varieties
were known in other parts of the Territory. Cotton has
also been successfully grown in experimental plots in
Western Australia since the 1 8 80 7 s. The Curator pointed
out that Northern Australia held one great advantage
over America in cotton-growing that the Australian crop

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 151

ripened in the dry season, thus obviating the damage by
rain to which the American crop is subject, and that also
the strain of picking is lessened.

The long dry season of 1902 induced the Queens-
land Department of Agriculture to encourage cotton cul-
tivation, not only for the lint but also as a fodder-crop.
In 1903 a Commission was appointed to report whether
cotton could be grown on a commercial scale by white
labour. The Commission reported that a profit could be
made by farmers who cultivated it in easily worked areas
of from five to ten acres, but that large plantations were
unsuited to Australian conditions. The Commission added
that it was unlikely that farmers would begin cultivation
unless they were guaranteed a minimum price for several
years.

In the meantime the Federal Government was con-
sidering cotton-growing in the Northern Territory. The
inquiries made suggested that before anything could be
done on a commercial scale in the Territory an experi-
mental farm should be established at Darwin, from which
selected seed could be distributed, at first to selected
growers.

The British Cotton-Growing Association, formed in
1902, investigated conditions in Australia, but were not
impressed with the possibility of growing cotton with
white labour. They decided to undertake no work in
Australia, although prepared, if the State Governments
would formulate definite schemes, to supply seed and
machinery.

In 1907 the Federal Government offered a bounty
of ten per cent of the market value of cotton grown and
ginned in Australia, but with little result, only 420 being
paid in bounties in seven years.

Cotton-growing was one of the subjects dealt with by
the Dominions Royal Commission in 1913. The British
Cotton-growing Association then offered, provided that

152 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

the Australian Governments concerned undertook to make
experiments in cotton-growing over a period of three
years, to contribute 100 per annum towards the cost 5 to
provide seed for experimental purposes j to undertake
shipment, marketing, etc., and to guarantee a minimum
net price, in England, of 6^d. per Ib. The Association
provided that this offer was not to apply to the product
of perennial varieties or to ratooned cotton, it being of
the opinion that these classes were unsuitable for spinning
and gave facility for the increase in cotton pests.

The Federal Government agreed to make provision
for an expert to be attached to the Queensland Depart-
ment of Agriculture to carry out experiments, but for
some reason this agreement lapsed. During the war the
area under cultivation slightly increased, the total quan-
tity of raw cotton received at the Government ginnery
being 9500 Ib. in 1914, and 166,000 Ib. in 1918. The
chief deterrent to more extensive cultivation was the high
cost of picking, especially as the pickers were inexperi-
enced.

The Commonwealth Institute of Science and Re-
search interested itself in the possibilities of the invention
of a machine for picking cotton. A Committee was ap-
pointed in 1917 to carry out experiments, but the results
obtained were not considered satisfactory.

During 1919 various indications pointed to the pos-
sibility of successful cotton-growing. Prices of labour in
the United States and Egypt were advancing, and ap-
peared likely to be raised considerably over future years.
In addition, the Director of the Commonwealth Arsenal
was interested to obtain from Australia, if possible, suffi-
cient supplies for the requirements of the cordite f actory.
From 1913 the Queensland Government had made ad-
vances of ld. per Ib- on seed cotton (increased to 2d.
per Ib, in 1918) and had it ginned for the growers, guar-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 153

anteeing them 5d. for good seed cotton. The bonus
terminated in 1923.

The Commonwealth Government now came to the
assistance of the growers, joining in the guarantee given
by the Queensland Government, and the British Asso-
ciation insured it up to 10,000. The British-Australian
Cotton-growers' Association was organised, and erected
factories at convenient centres, not only for the ginning
of the cotton but also for the extraction of seed-oil and
the manufacture of oil-cake. Additionally, an indepen-
dent firm had organised a spinning factory,

In the result, the area under cotton had increased from
72 acres in 1919 to 40,062 acres in 1925, and the yield
of unginned cotton for 1925 was over 19,000,000 Ib.
The guarantee for 1925 was a series of rates from 5^d.
down to 2^d. according to quality j ratoon cotton was not
under the guarantee. In spite of the high price of cotton
in the world's markets, the Queensland Government lost
over 300,000 on the guarantees, the Commonwealth
Government sharing the losses. In 1925 the Empire
Cotton-growing Corporation an English institution de-
cided to contribute 3000 per annum to the maintenance
of experimental plantations in Australia. Two such plan-
tations exist: at Biloela, south of Rockhampton, and at
Monal, on the Upper Burnett River.

Louis Hope set sugar-cane growing on a commercial
basis in Queensland. In 1862-63 he had twenty acres
under cane in the Moreton Bay District. In 1864 he in-
troduced kanakas to work on the cane-fields, and in 1867
was thanked and given a grant of land by the Queensland
Parliament "for his successful demonstration of the suit-
ability of the Queensland climate to the growth of sugar-

cane."

In 1864 sugar companies were formed in Brisbane,
Maryborough, and Mackay. By the end of 1869 there

154 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

were twenty-eight mills crushing the produce of 1230
acres, 5000 acres in all being under cane. For several
years there was steady development in the industry,
till in 1876 the cane-fields were almost destroyed by rust.
A harder type of cane, maturing in one season, was then
introduced. At this time the output of sugar was about
15,000 tons. At the height of the panic and the financial
crisis brought about by the failure of the crop, McCready,
of Mackay, demonstrated for five consecutive seasons that
sugar could be produced at a cost of not more than 10
per ton, and the industry recovered so completely that in
1878-79 there was a "boom" in sugar-cane farming. In
1 883-84 there were 157 mills crushing from 27,792 acres
(out of a total of 43,367 acres under cane) and producing
34,148 tons of sugar and 144,073 gallons of rum.

In 1885 the Queensland Government voted a sum
of 50,000 for loans towards the erection of Central
Sugar Mills. The money was to be divided between the
North Eton and Racecourse Mills, both situated in the
Mackay district. This loan demonstrated the advisability
of the Central Mill, for, from the inception of the two
mills above-mentioned, the large sugar-growing estates
began to be sub-divided into small farms, of from 50 to
100 acres each, and leased or sold on reasonable terms,
thus settling hundreds of small farmers on the land.

While the erection of central mills did much to en-
courage the industry, there was yet a period of depression.
The Queensland Government appointed a Royal Com-
mission to inquire into the industry and to formulate plans
to revive and maintain its prosperity. From the reports
of this Commission the Sugar Works Guarantee Act was
formed. The Act authorised advances, by way of guar-
anteed loans, for the establishment of sugar mills. Under
it a group of farmers can form themselves into a co-opera-
tive society and, by mortgaging their lands to the Govern-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 155

ment, obtain the money necessary to erect a mill. The
mill is their property and has to be worked under their
management, subject to the lien the Government has over
it for the repayment of the money advanced for its build-
ing.

The year before the passing of the Sugar Works
Guarantee Act of 1 893 kanakas had been re-introduced to
work the cane-fields. They were brought in under strict
Government supervision, each vessel carrying them hav-
ing an, accredited Government agent on board. The kan-
akas were engaged for a term of three years and at the
end of that term might either be engaged for a further
term or be repatriated. They were paid a minimum of
6 per head per annum, with board, lodging, and cloth-
ing, the value in all being about 37. For the return of
the islanders the, planters paid 5 per head and 30/- for
supervision. The latter was later raised to 3. There was
also a hospital capitation fee of 1 O/-, subsequently raised
to 1. The kanakas who were re-engaged were termed
"over-time boys" and were free to make their own agree-
ments for wages, usually getting from 20 to 30 per
annum. Kanakas were prohibited from working outside
the cane-fields areas.

The employment of thousands of black labourers in
the cane-fields aroused indignation among the white
workers. For many years the agitation for the abolition,
of kanaka labour was great. The whites contended that
the kanakas took the bread out of their mouths, and the
planters retorted that, even if white labour could stand
the tropical heat of the cane-fields and there was sufficient
of it, the higher rates of pay would make the industry
unreproductive to the grower who had to face world-
competition. The deadlock came to an end during the
first year of Federation, the Commonwealth Government
terminating kanaka labour after 1904. In 1900-1

156 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

there were 108,535 acres of cane grown in Queensland
and 92,554 tons of sugar produced.

During 1902 some 68 per cent of the cane in the
sugar-growing districts was grown with black labour. In
1906 over 6000 Polynesians were deported and for a
time something resembling chaos reigned in the industry.
Matters gradually became normal, under the bounty of
2 per ton maximum offered by the Commonwealth
Government on sugar manufactured from cane grown
exclusively by white labour. In 1914 only four per cent
of sugar-cane was produced by coloured labour. In 1912 a
Sugar Bounty Abolition Act and Sugar Excise Repeal Act
were passed by the Federal Parliament, to come into force
whenever the Queensland Parliament should prohibit the
employment of coloured labour. In 1915 the Common-
wealth assumed control of the Australian sugar output,
paying the growers a fixed price 18 per ton, subse-
quently raised to 21 per ton. The Government disposed
of the refined product at 25 10s. per ton, the retail price
being fixed at 3d. per Ib. In 1910-11, 141,779 acres of
cane were planted and 210,756 tons of sugar produced
in Queensland. In 1916-17, 167,221 acres were planted
and 176,973 tons produced.

In 1920 the Commonwealth Government entered
into an agreement with the sugar-cane farmers to cover
the years 1920-22, by which the price of raw sugar was
fixed at a minimum of 30 6s. 8d. per ton. This raised
the wholesale price of refined sugar to 49 per ton, with
a retail price of 6d. per Ib. At the end of the 1922 season
the agreement was not renewed, but the embargo against
the employment of black labour was continued for an-
other two years, on the condition that a pool, free from
Government control, was formed to buy raw sugar for the
next season at not more than 27 per ton. In 1923 the
retail price of sugar was reduced to 4-^d. per Ib. This
proved satisfactory, and the price of 27 a ton for raw

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 157

sugar was continued for 1924-25, the embargo against
black labour being continued till June 1925. Later the
embargo was extended for a period of three years from
September 1925 by agreement between the Common-
wealth and Queensland Governments.

In 1923-24, 219,965 acres of cane were grown in
Queensland, with a yield of 269,175 tons of sugar. In
New South Wales, in the same season, the acreage was
17,315 and the tonnage produced was 16,829. During
the year 1924-25, 253,519 acres were under cane and
407,454 tons of sugar were manufactured in Queensland.

In New South Wales sugar-cane growing was first
regarded seriously in 1865, when 141 acres of cane
were planted in the Clarence, Richmond, and Tweed dis-
tricts. By 1875 the area had increased to 6454 acres and
fifty mills were in operation. From then on the area
under cultivation in the State steadily increased, until in
1895 it reached the total of 33,000 acres, with more than
a hundred mills crushing. Then came the turn of the
tide, and the acreage under cane steadily declined, many
important cane-growing districts being converted to the
dairying industry. In 1900-1 New South Wales had
22,1 14 acres of land under cane and the yield was 19,938
tons. By 1910 this area had been reduced to 14,000
acres, and in 1919 a further reduction had taken place
to 10,500 acres the cane-growing being still further
superseded by dairying and maize growing. From 1919
on there were signs that sugar-cane was coming back into
favour in the old growing districts. In 1924-25 there
were 19,993 acres of cane growing for the production of
26,682 tons of sugar.

In Victoria, after the collapse of the beet-growing
company at Geelong in 1872, little was attempted in the
industry until 1896 when the Government offered to
assist a new Company with 100,000. Substantial build-
ings and plant were erected at Maffra in Gippsland, and

158 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

local landowners guaranteed to grow 1500 acres of beet.
Two campaigns produced 617 tons and 348 tons of sugar
respectively, and the plant and buildings then fell into the
hands of the Government and were closed down.

Again in 1910 energetic measures were taken in Vic-
toria to encourage the growth of sugar-beet. Experimen-
tal plots were grown, lectures instituted, and large areas
at Boisdale and Kilmany Park both places in railway
communication with the Maffra Factory were divided
into small holdings and bounties were offered to growers.
Since that date there has been continued progress, and the
last records, with the increase in the price of sugar, showed
a profit of 8000. Proper irrigation would assure the
future of an industry which, one grower stated, is more
profitable than dairying or pig-raising, while requiring
less capital for its institution. In 1910-1 1, 458 acres pro-
duced 5969 tons of beet. In 1914-15, 990 acres pro-
duced 10,343 tons of beet; in 1916-17, 15,159 tons were
grown on 1320 acres.

The growing of beet-sugar continued to attract far-
mers in Victoria. In 1923-24 29,512 tons were pro-
duced from 1937 acres. In 1924-25 the acreage had
dropped to 1897, from which 24,468 tons of beet were
taken* The sugar produced from the 1924-25 crop to-
talled 3017 tons. In 1923-24 growers were paid 37s. 6d.
per ton for the beet and the factories realised a profit of
19,016.

Tobacco-growing has always been a problem in Aus-
tralia, in spite of the fact that very good leaf grows over
many areas in the country. Experiments commenced in
the early days of New South Wales, yet in 1848 only
201 acres were planted, producing 309 cwt. of leaf. By
1851 the area was increased to 731 acres and the leaf
cropped reached a total of 12,530 cwt.; then followed a
remarkable falling off in the industry. In 1 854 only eight
acres were planted. In 1856 there were 218 acres under

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 159

tobacco, with a yield of 2813 cwt. 3 in 1860 the crop had
enlarged to 9704 cwt, from an area of 240 acres.

By the year 1860 a number of small tobacco factories
had been established in New South Wales. There was
one factory at Port Stephens, three at Dungog, eight at
Maitland and one each at Petersham and Sydney. The
quality of the leaf produced was inferior "dark, strong
tobacco was in favour."

During the 1880 ? s the industry looked likely
to take firm root in the colony. In 1881 the area was
3154 acres, producing 31,708 cwt. of leaf. The area
increased in 1888 to 6641 acres planted, with a crop of
70,251 cwt. 5 but this crop was far too large to be absorbed
by the home market and was not well enough handled for
export. The growers lost heavily, and the area planted
the following year, 1889, decreased to 4194 acres, pro-
ducing 31,847 cwt. of leaf. By 1894 the Government
awoke to the necessity of stimulating the industry in some
manner, but the farmers grew steadily fewer, apparently
not caring for the amount and kind of labour involved in
proper cultivation, and the industry fell almost entirely
into the hands of the Chinese resident in the Upper Mac-
quarie, Upper Namoi, and Tumut districts. In 1900 the
total area of tobacco cultivation was only 973 acres 199
acres in New South Wales, 1 09 acres in Victoria, and 665
acres in Queensland.

In Queensland tobacco culture received little at-
tention. In 1865 certain Chinese planted 19 acres. In
1888 this was increased to 1 17 acres. Then, in 1 899, the
Government having obtained the services of an expert
from the United States of America, some 77,571 Ib. more
leaf was grown than in the preceding year. The tobacco
industry in Queensland is more or less centred in the
Texas and Inglewood districts and on the fertile flats of
the Dumaresque River, extending over the State border
into New South Wales. Cigar leaf is grown in the

160 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Bowen district, the Texas product being pipe-tobacco. In
the State there were only 182 acres under tobacco in 1902,
but by 1905 the area had grown to 752 acres.

In Victoria the cultivation of tobacco was left in the
hands of Asiatics. In 1859 there were 66 acres under
leaf. By 1878 this had increased to 1936 acres. From
that date the crops fluctuated largely, the maximum year
being 1886, when 2031 acres were under cultivation.

In 1897 the Victorian Government, in an endeavour
to foster the industry, offered a bonus of 3d. per Ib. on
locally grown leaf approved for export, but the conditions
surrounding the offer were too stringent to encourage the
industry, and in 1901 the offer lapsed.

Private enterprise established a tobacco plantation in
1 890 at Rumjungle in the Northern Territory. An ex-
pert was brought from India to supervise the plantation,
and for several years tobacco of a high quality was grown,
some parcels realising 1 Os. 9d. per Ib. When the owner
of the plantation died, the enterprise was abandoned.

After the war efforts were made by the Governments
and the tobacco-buyers to encourage the growth of the
Australian leaf. An agreement was made between the
growers and the buyers that in 1925-27 the buyers should
purchase a minimum of 1400 tons of flue-cured leaf,
divided as to half from each of the two States then grow-
ing tobacco Victoria and New South Wales* A sum of
3700 was to be advanced to the growers for the erection
of flue-barns, but after the 1925 season no sun-dried leaf
was to be accepted. In 1924-25 there were 2149 acres
under tobacco, 719 acres in New South Wales, 1228 acres
in Victoria, 166 acres in Queensland, and 36 acres in South
Australia. During the 1923-24 season the amount of
Australian tobacco used in manufacture was 1,122,825 Ib.
about seven per cent of the total amount manufac-
tured.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 161

Under rice, Queensland had in 1898 an area of 863
acres, and reaped an average of 14.19 bushels to the acre.
In 1899 Northern Queensland produced 14 per cent of
the Colony's annual consumption, 82 per cent of the
total yield coming from the Cairns district. In New South
Wales the cultivation of rice was attempted in 1892 with
seed imported from the Central Province of India 5 the
results were discouraging.

In 1899 there appeared every reason to believe that
rice had taken stand Beside sugar-cane as a Queensland
national crop. But by 1900 the area under cultivation
had fallen to 3 1 9 acres. This decrease was attributed to
the fact that banana-growing was at that time more re-
munerative.

In 1911 New South Wales again tried to grow rice
commercially, and again the results were disappointing. In
1916-17 a variety named "Takasuka" was tried at
Yanco, but unfortunately the growing crop was eaten
down by locusts. In 1922-23 a further experiment took
place at the Yanco farm, a large experimental plot being
sown with a variety named "Wataribune." The results
this time were favourable, the crop yielding 3223 Ib.
per acre, as against only 2727 Ib. at the rice-experiment
station at Crowley, U.S.A., whence the seed had been
obtained.

Although banana plants had been grown in Australia from
the time of the first settlement, little was accomplished
in establishing the industry until after the year 1890.
Up to that date, banana cultivation had been confined
to the frost-free eastern slopes of Queensland and New
South Wales, but the fruit had been grown successfully
as far south as Gosford and Newcastle, although the
results had not warranted the establishment of commer-
cial plantations.

Records are in existence of successful banana-grow-
ing on the north coast of New South Wales before 1 865.

M

162 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Queensland has at least three native varieties of
bananas growing in the rich scrublands of the north, but
they, are of little food-value. All the bananas cultivated
in Australia are imported varieties, chiefly the Chinese or
Cavendish, the Sugar, and the Lady's Finger.

At the beginning of the twentieth century the in-
dustry began to assume commercial proportions in
Queensland. Bananas were first grown in the districts
around Brisbane, and, taken farther north, flourished
exceedingly in the Cairns, Innisflil, Tully River, and
Mulgrave districts, where soil, climate, and rainfall
are conducive to the production of fine fruit.

About 1890 banana cultivation had become exten-
sive in the above districts, where the soil is rich, and
heavily timbered. In the early days of the industry in
these districts the owners of the land, wishing to save
the cost of expensive clearing, leased the ground to
Chinese for terms of years. The Chinese cleared the
land and planted the bananas, reaping very heavy har-
vests, since the ground was full of potash and the banana
is a gross feeder. When the Chinese leases expired and
the owners took possession of what they believed to be
fruitful plantations, the crops began to fall off, for
the plants had taken most of the food out of the earth.
Many growers were unwilling to pay for manures}
others did not realise the extent of manuring required by
this plant. The plantations began to fail. Lack of suffi-
cient food in the soil brought disease and finally the root-
boring worm appeared. At the beginning of the year
1900 the industry gave every sign of being wiped out 5
the owners pulled up the plants and put the land under
sugar-cane.

The total banana crop for 1924-25 was valued at
831,285, grown on 15,005 acres. The plantations
suffered severe loss in 1922-23 through a disease known
as <c bunchy~top." In 1924 another previously unidenti-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 163

fied organism was discovered in the roots, corms, and
leaves of the affected plants, and this is being experi-
mented upon as a possible source of the disease.

While coffee grows extremely well in the warm north-
eastern corner of New South Wales, it has rarely
been grown commercially in Australia. In many of the
coastal districts of Queensland coffee was planted about
1890 and grew to perfection, but in consequence of the
labour troubles and the low prices realised many planters
abandoned the experiment. A few plantations continued
to grow coffee until well into the 1 890 ? s.

From 1890 onwards a few coffee plantations existed
in Northern Queensland, struggling against adversity.
The maximum plantings, so far, have reached 547 acres.
This was in 1901-2. In 1908 there were 285 acres
under crop, producing 116,293 Ib. of (Parchment)
coffee. The chief producing areas, in those years, were
Cairns, Maroochy, Mackay, and Maryborough. From
1908 there has been a consistent diminution of the
planted area.

During the period immediately following the separa-
tion of Queensland from New South Wales the former
colony grew maize extensively. Nearly the whole of the
crop was, and is, grown in the Moreton Bay, Darling
Downs, Wide Bay, and Atherton districts. In 1909 the
State Department of Agriculture acclimatised a large
number of varieties from America. Both in Queensland
and New South Wales the Governments supplied seed to
the farmers, purchased, classified, and graded their pro-
duce, and distributed seed for the next growing, season
after season. In Victoria the area under maize, though
smaller than in New South Wales, was more productive.
With the aid of fertilisers good results were obtained from
the sandy soil along the coast-line.

164 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

In 1924-25 Queensland had 229,160 acres under
crop for a yield of 7,330,827 bushels, valued at
1,435,619. New South Wales had slightly more than
half that area under cultivation, and from 146,564 acres
took 4,208,200 bushels of the value of 824,106. Vic-
toria, the third largest maize-growing State, had only
23,126 acres in crop and gathered 891,987 bushels, of the
value of 189,547. Western Australia put only 71 acres
under the grain, for a crop of 333 bushels. The Federal
Territory sowed 21 acres for a yield of 420 bushels, and
South Australia only seven acres, producing 276 bushels.

The average acre-yield of maize for the Common-
wealth for the ten years 1914-24 was 24.59 bushels j
compared with the crops in the United States of America
(the principal maize-growing country of the world) it
is lower by 4.73, but compared with that of other countries
it is very satisfactory. A small but fluctuating trade in the
export and import of maize is entirely dependent on the
success or failure of the local crop. In 1915-16 nearly
4,500,000 bushels were imported; in 1923-24 the excess
of imports over exports was 2,534,891 bushels. The ex-
port trade in corn-flour is, for the time, small. In 1924-25
it was 19,177 lb., valued at 490. A moderate amount
is imported annually, the principal sources of supply being
Great Britain and the United States. The imports for
1924-25 were 299,198 lb., valued at 5273.

A total of 346,091 tons of potatoes were grown in
Australia during the year 1924-25. Of this Victoria grew
nearly half, her acreage being 61,196, with a yield of
169,863 tons. Tasmania was the next largest grower,
and from 32,109 acres took 82,094 tons. New South
Wales came third with 23,044 acres, growing 49,485
tons. The other States Queensland, South Australia,
and Western Australia between them grew 44,649 tons
on an area of 16,691 acres.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 165

An attempt to introduce hop-growing into Victoria
was made in 1883. An area of 1758 acres was planted
and proved fairly successful} but the cultivation apparent-
ly did not appeal to the Victorian farmers and the area
planted dwindled until in 1917 only 87 acres were under
crop.

In Tasmania hop-growing has always been success-
ful. From 1870 onwards production fell little short of
1,000,000 lb., annually. In the 1880's high prices for
hops stimulated planting to such an extent that over-pro-
duction occurred, bringing down prices and nearly ruining
the industry.

The total area of hops planted for the season 1924-25
was 1806 acres, of which 1494 were in Tasmania and 269
in Victoria. The imports during this year exceeded ex-
ports by 157,424 lb., of a value of 12,967.

THE PROGRESS OF VITICULTURE
IN AUSTRALIA

UP to 1850 New South Wales was the principal vine-
growing colony. Three of the vineyards planted in the
early days of the colony are still producing Kirkton, near
Singleton, was planted in 1830 5 Dal wood, near Maitland,
also in the thirties 5 Bukulla, in New England, was planted
about 1848-49. Victoria in 1860 had 1138 acres of vines
and steadily extended her area until 1887, when phyl-
loxera called a temporary check. In 1880 she had 5000
acres under vines, and in 1885 nearly 10,000. In South
Australia the progress of the industry was steadier, en-
countering no checks through disease.

Wine-making has kept pace with the extension of the
vineyards. In 1803 a small quantify of poor wine was
made near Sydney. In 1823 Gregory Blaxland, the ex-
plorer, succeeded in making good wine at his farm on the
Parramatta River and was awarded medals by the English

166 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Royal Society of Arts. James King's wines secured Euro-
pean recognition, and in 1854 South Australian wines
were praised at the Paris Exhibition. At the Melbourne
Exhibition of 1 88 1 the German Emperor offered a trophy
to "an exhibitor of one of the Australian colonies as an
acknowledgment of the efforts in promoting Art and
Industry shown by the high qualities of the goods manu-
factured by the exhibitor/' The trophy was won by the
St. Hubert vineyard.

Australia had 6237 acres of vineyards in 1860-61.
By the year 1865-66 these had increased to 13,577} in
1870-71 to 17,227} in 1875-76 there were 15,563 acres;
in 1880-81 15,515} and in 1885-86, 22,271.

In 1920-21 viticulture occupied a total area within
the Commonwealth of 81,165 acres, of which South Aus-
tralia had 36,661} Victoria 29,255} New South Wales
10,783} Western Australia 3210, and Queensland 1256.
For the season 1924-25 the area had grown to 91,314
acres for the Commonwealth. Of this South Australia
grew 43,361 acres and produced 10,502,381 gallons of
wine, 1156 tons of grapes, and 248,831 cwt. of raisins
and currants. Victoria, from 31,723 acres of vines pro-
duced 1,368,765 gallons of wine, 2672 tons of grapes,
and 471,943 cwt. of raisins and currants. New South
Wales from its 10,95,4 acres of vineyards produced
1,171,264 gallons of wine, 3590 tons of grapes, and
24,133 cwt. of raisins and currants. Western Australia,
from 4139 acres, produced 223,761 gallons of wine,
2069 tons of grapes, and 20,529 cwt. of raisins and cur-
rants. Queensland the only State with fewer vines in
1924-25 than in 1920-21 produced from 1137 acres
33,1 19 gallons of wine and 961 tons of grapes.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 167

THE PROGRESS OF DAIRYING IN
AUSTRALIA

THE Illawarra district has, from the early days o
the colony, been recognised as the most important dairying
centre. Gradually the industry spread from that centre
southwards into the districts of Ulladulla, Moruya, and
Bega, until almost a whole county became devoted to the
industry.

At Shoalhaven, Alexander Berry formed a fine herd
of dairy cattle and in 1 849 exported considerable quanti-
ties of butter to California. The spread of the industry
evolved a good-class dairy-cattle, known as the Illawarra
Shorthorn probably from crossings of Ayrshires with
milking Shorthorns.

During the 1850's butter sometimes sold as high as
2s. 6d. to 3s. per Ib. wholesale} but in the summer months
the prices fell, sometimes as low as to 6d. per Ib. Then
butter was exported to the other colonies, principally Vic-
toria. The export of butter during 1853 was 79,990
Ib., valued at 6636. "The progress of dairying from
1852 to 1883," writes J. P. Dowling, "was made under
the old system, advances being made at Bodalla, south
of Moruya, by the late Thomas Mort, and by Messrs.
Fox, Tooth, and Wren and other energetic settlers at
Bega. In these districts were established factories fur-
nished with all the best American cheese-making appli-
ances, and the South Coast soon obtained a great and
lasting reputation for cheese and bacon."

The introduction of cream separators at Mittagong
by the Fresh Food and Ice Company in 1881, and of the
co-operative factory system at Kiama in 1884, greatly pro-
moted the industry. D. L. Dymock, of Kiama, had been
for years advocating co-operation and herd-testing. For
the purpose of acquiring oversea methods of dairying he

i68 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

travelled extensively in Europe and America and brought
to Australia the first Laval cream separator. The co-
operative factory system gradually gained adherents. In
1888, eight factories were working, each costing from
1500 to 2000, and taking milk from an average of
fifty dairymen. About this year butter was exported to
London in the cool chambers of the mail steamers and was
sold at from lO^d. to Is. per Ib. This experiment stimu-
lated the industry in a remarkable manner. It was fol-
lowed by exports to Queensland, Western Australia, Bata-
via, Calcutta, Bombay, Singapore, and Hong Kong.

In 1891 the quantity of butter made in New South
Wales under the old system was 10,484,4-74 Ib., and that
made in factories 8,049,656 Ib. A year later (1900)
the old system produced only 4,216,134 Ib., while the
factories produced 18,817,747 Ib. In 1891 there were
124 butter factories to which milk was delivered, there
being no local creameries and home separators. In 1900
there were 168 butter factories and 387 creameries in
the State.

At the end of the year 1888 there was a remarkable
development in dairying in the sub-tropical Richmond
River district. This district had been, up to then, chiefly
occupied with the growing of sugar-cane, but the great
fall in the price of sugar ruined many, and the Govern-
ment, when appealed to, suggested dairying as an alterna-
tive industry. Much of the country was cleared and dairy
cattle were obtained, mostly from the south-coast districts.
New settlers arrived 5 co-operative butter factories and
creameries were established, and in a few years the largest
butter factory in the world was in full operation in the
Byron Bay district.

General dairying instruction was provided for farm-
ers and their families by the New South Wales Govern-
ment in 1902. A travelling dairy was equipped and sent
on a tour of the State. A well-equipped dairy for the

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 169

instruction of students was provided at the Hawkesbury
Agricultural College. Similar provisions for instruction
were made at the Wagga, Bathurst, Richmond River,
Grafton, and other experimental farms. A Dairy Stud
Farm was established at Berry, in the Illawarra district,
with dairy cattle of the best breeds, obtained from Eng-
land. An expert in cheese-making travelled round the
agricultural districts, giving instruction in the making of
high-class cheese.

In New South Wales the Dairying Industry is chiefly
regulated by the Dairies' Supervision Act of 1901. Dairy-
men, milk-vendors, and the proprietors of creameries and
dairy factories must be registered. Inspections are made
by District Inspectors under the supervision of a Chief
Inspector.

Little legislation was enacted in Australia for the
Dairying Industry during the period 191 9-2 8 . The trade
was well established and making good progress. Within
the Commonwealth there were 2,055,638 dairy cows in
1920 as against 2,444,637 in 1925. During the same
period the production of milk increased from 623,285,221
gallons to 862,393,709, that of butter from 208,081,864
Ib. to 313,959,291, and of cheese from 24,150,534 Ib.
to 31,442,292. Only in the production of concentrated,
condensed, and powdered milk was there any retrogres-
sion. Between 1910 and 1920 this part of the industry
rose from 12,491,261 Ib. to 70,944,482, but by 1925 the
production had dropped to 62,009,230 Ib.

Of the above figures New South Wales produced
in 1921-25 from an annual average of 797,890 dairy
cows; 260,975,000 gallons of milk} 89,711,932 Ib. of
butter; 6,518,285 Ib. of cheese; and 7,661,191 Ib. of
condensed, concentrated, or powdered milk.

A Commission appointed by the Victorian Govern-
ment reported that the Victorian farmers were slower to
adopt new methods than their brethren in the Illawarra

i;o FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

district of New South Wales, and, to stimulate production,
recommended that bonuses should be given for butter and
cheese manufacture, and that model dairies should be
established for demonstration. The recommendations
were adopted by the Government, and throughout the
colony co-operative butter factories were established. In
1889-90 the production of butter for export from Victoria
amounted to only 828,882 Ib. By 1892-93 it had in-
creased to 8,099,258. The cheese industry had also
developed largely, especially in the Western District and,
to a lesser extent, in Gippsland. To encourage this
branch of the dairying industry the Government obtained
the services of a Canadian expert. In 1890 a factory
was established at Bacchus Marsh for the manufactuie
of preserved and concentrated milk on a commercial scale.
By the end of the century the earlier Shorthorn and
Hereford cattle were being gradually replaced or crossed
with Ayrshires, Jerseys, and other dairy breeds. At the
same time the work of cutting up large estates for dairy-
ing purposes was accelerated.

Queensland did not turn serious attention to dairying
until 1888, when the Government obtained the services
of a dairy expert. A well-equipped travelling dairy was
purchased and instruction given to farmers who desired to
extend their activities into this industry. At this time
there were barely half a dozen cream-separators in the
colony, and there was no modernly equipped factory for
either cheese or butter- Progress was steady, and by 1 895
the importation of butter and cheese into the State had
practically ceased.

Queensland farmers quickly took up the dairying in-
dustry as illustrated by the Government expert with the
travelling dairy. In 1888 the amount of butter pro-
duced in the colony was 1,500,000 Ib. By 1894 it had
reached nearly 5,000,000 Ib., together with 1,536,997
Ib. of cheese. The chief dairying districts were Warwick,

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 171

Brisbane, and Toowoomba. The first experiment in ex-
porting cool-storage butter from Queensland was made
in 1895, some seven and a half tons being shipped. Fur-
ther to encourage dairying a tax was levied on dairy cattle,
the proceeds being used for the erection of butter and
cheese factories, or for a bonus on the industry. In 1 896-
97 some 63 tons of butter were exported. During the
next season the Dairy Expert reported that dairy cattle
had increased in value at least 70 per cent during the
year, and that land, previously unused because unfit for
agriculture, was carrying dairy herds. Steps had been
taken to improve the herds, but the supply of well-bred
cattle was very inadequate.

During the year 1900 there were 53 butter and cheese
factories and 146 creameries in the State, employing 595
persons. The output for that year was 5875 tons of
butter and 886 tons of cheese, the total value being
656, 177 5 620 tons of butter were exported. At that
time Queensland dairy produce had to be sent to Sydney
by intercolonial steamers and there transhipped into the
European boats.

The Queensland Dairy Produce Act of 1905 revolu-
tionised the industry. It provided not only for the in-
spection of dairies, dairy-farms, and factories, but for the
appointment of Grading Inspectors to classify butter in-
tended for export. In 1908 an Amending Act insisted
that cream should be graded for manufacture into dif-
ferent qualities of butter, and that no person should be
allowed to grade cream until he had obtained a certificate
of proficiency.

A year or two earlier the necessity for transhipping
in Sydney dairy produce intended for England was
avoided by inducing the Orient Line of mail steamers to
call at Brisbane, the Government paying a subsidy of
26,000 per annum.

In 1920 the Government passed a Dairy Produce

172 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Act applying to the whole of the Queensland coast from
Rockhampton southwards, as well as to the Darling
Downs, Maranoa, Mackay, and Cairns districts. It is
administered by the Department of Agriculture, and under
it, in certain proclaimed areas, the sale of milk is confined
to persons licensed under the Act of 1917. The sale
is supervised by Inspectors from the Department of
Health.

A large proportion of the Queensland industry is
undertaken on the share-system. At Toogoolawah, in the
Brisbane valley, a condensed milk company has six model
farms, comprising 4000 acres, of which 1200 are under
cultivation for maize, lucerne, millet, and other grains.
The average annual figures for the period 1921-25 are:
Dairy Cows, 565,364; milk, 139,784,080 gallons; butter,
56,257,563 Ib.; cheese, 11,611,324 Ib.; and condensed,
concentrated, or powdered milk, 11,355,319 Ib.

Butter and cheese have been Tasmanian products and
exports since before 1858. According to M. H. Hull,
butter and cheese were exported from Tasmania about that
time to the value of 16,000 per annum, the price of
butter averaging 2s. per Ib. The stock cattle used were
Ayrshires, Herefords, and Devons. "These animals,"
he writes, "are taking the place of the cross between the
bison and Brahmin cows which we used to have, and which
had to be knocked down with a long pole and roped head
and feet before they could be milked. At one time it
was no unusual thing for the milkman, after a turn of
seven miles in the bush, to be tossed in the air by one
cow and his shins kicked by another before he could suc-
ceed in inducing her to part with the usual pint of milk
for the family's breakfast."

For many years Tasmania was backward in develop-
ing the dairying industry. In 1903 there were only
fifteen butter factories, producing less than a million
pounds of butter, and the output of cheese was little more

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 173

than half-a-million pounds. But after 1900 the State
awoke to the possibilities o the industry. At first pro-
gress was slow, but by 1920 long steps had been taken*
The average annual figures for the period 1921-25 are:
Dairy Cows, 68,567; milk, 20,808,000 gallons; butter,
5,528,124 lb.j cheese, 1,049, 549 Ib.

South Australia made an improvement in dairying
matters about 1885, when the Government began to assist
farmers by instruction in dairying methods and facilitating
the export of dairy produce. In 1890 the colony ex-
ported to England some 10,850 Ib. of butter; in the fol-
lowing year it doubled the supply. By 1893-94 it was
producing nearly six millions pounds of butter and nearly
a million pounds of cheese. In 1 896-97 the approximate
quantities of butter and cheese were respectively 9,000,000
Ib. and 1,750,000 Ib. The average annual figures for
the period 1921-25 are: Dairy Cows, 130,819; milk,
42,231,276 gallons; butter, 14,883,999 Ib.; cheese,
3,176,368 Ib.

An official Western Australian report in 1 891 recom-
mended dairying as an industry that could be followed
with advantage in the coastal area of the State from the
Moore River to Cape Leeuwin, and inland to the dividing
range. But as late as 1911 the industry remained prac-
tically undeveloped, though during 1910 butter to the
value of 342,771, preserved milk valued at 78,492,
and cheese worth 36,805 had to be imported, In June
1912 the Chief Inspector of Stock reported that dairy-
cattle in the State had diminished by about 3000 head
in the one year. To encourage settlers to take an interest
in dairying the Government established a State farm at
Brunswick where pure Ayrshires are kept and bred. The
numbers of dairy cattle in the State were small until
1916, when the returns showed that there were 33,788.
Then followed more rapid development* The Public
Health authorities regulate the dairying industry; the

174 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

premises of dairymen and milk-vendors are supervised
and registered by the Health Inspector 5 officers of the
Department of Agriculture examine herds at regular in-
tervals and apply the tuberculin test where disease is in-
dicated. For 1921-25 the figures of the average annual
output in the State are: Dairy Cows, 59,587, milk,
12,898,974 gallons; butter, 2,848,202 Ib.

THE PROGRESS OF FRUIT-GROWING
IN AUSTRALIA

FOR nearly a hundred years after Governor Phillip
landed in Australia fruit-growing was considered of little
account as an industry. Yet throughout the settled por-
tions of the country fruit grew in abundance. In the
southern part of the east coast (Queensland) bananas and
pine-apples throve and proved adaptable along the warm
coastal belt as settlement moved northwards. The mango,
passion-fruit, granadilla, paw-paw, guava, orange, apple,
peach, and plum were also quickly acclimatised. In New
South Wales the county of Cumberland and neighbour-
hood as far as the Kurrajong on the west and Gosford
on the north proved the chief fruit-growing districts,
citrus fruits predominating. Tropical fruits were grown
in the north-coast district and cherries throve in the
Orange district and in the colder areas of the tablelands.
Apples, pears, peaches, plums, apricots, and melons were
widely distributed. Loquats were grown as a breakwind
as well as for the fruit.

In Victoria, the apple, peach, plum, apricot, cherry,
and pear were the principal varieties grown, while rasp-
berries, gooseberries, and currants were cultivated in the
cool elevated districts. In Tasmania apples were the main
cropj currants, raspberries, and gooseberries were widely
distributed. Some pears and plums were also grown.
In South Australia, the apple, pear, cherry, prune, and

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 175

the berry fruits grew well in the highlands around Mt.
Lofty and Barossa, in the ranges behind Port Pirie, and
in the south-east. Citrus and stone-fruits grew well on
the plains and in the low-hill country. Olives had been
grown from truncheons sent out from Marseilles in 1844,
and at the Intercolonial Exhibition of 1851 had received
honourable mention for clearness, colour, and flavour of
the oil. Olive culture did not flourish to any great
extent until the Government published a pamphlet on the
subject written by W. R. Boothby after a tour through
the olive-growing districts of Europe. In Western Aus-
tralia, the apple, orange, peach, pear, plum, fig, and apri-
cot were chiefly grown.

Exports overseas were non-existent until 1880, when,
from the county of Cumberland in New South Wales, at-
tempts were made to open up an overseas trade, the first
consignment being a cask of oranges and lemons success-
fully forwarded to Dublin. In spite of the success of
this venture the risks of transport were too great for the
experiment to be developed commercially, and export
languished. The initiative in the commercial export of
fruit was taken by Tasmania, when improvements in re-
frigerating machines permitted the harder fruits to be
shipped without injury. In 1884, 100 cases of apples
were shipped from Hobartj in 1887, over 4000 cases
were sent oversea; before 1914 the trade had grown to
nearly a million cases annually.

The introduction of irrigation into Victoria and New
South Wales had a marked influence upon the fruit-grow-
ing industry. Irrigation settlements, devoted primarily
to fruit-growing and viticulture, have been developed
along the Murray Valley and in the areas watered by the
Goulburn in Victoria, the Murrumbidgee in New South
Wales, and private irrigation schemes in the south-
west of Western Australia. To find an outlet for the
products of these districts attempts were made to open up

b 176 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

home and oversea markets for fresh citrus and canned and
dried fruits, on the demand for which the future of the
irrigation settlements depended. The irrigation districts
are producing good citrus fruit. The Washington navel
orange has been specially cultivated along the Murray
and Murrumbidgee. Choice oranges are also grown by
irrigation from the artesian bore at Pera, near Bourke.
The overseas orange market is on the way to being firmly
established. The Australian growers were extremely
fortunate in that oranges shipped in July-September
could be placed on an empty market in Great Britain.
In addition to the citrus industry the settlers are devoting
special attention to canning and dried fruits.

In 1922 the Commonwealth Government called a
conference of representatives of the fruit-growing indus-
try. The result was the creation of a Federal Fruit
Council, with an Advisory Board in each State to advise
the Governments of the Commonwealth and the States on
all matters relating to the business. In 1925, the Fruit-
growers' Federation eulogised the work of the CounciJ
and the Boards.

In 1924-25 the areas devoted to fruit-growing in
Australia totalled 276,904 acres, of which 73,972 were in
New South Wales, 83,358 in Victoria, 31,738 in Queens-
land, 33,329 in South Australia, 18,520 in Western Aus-
tralia, and 33,992 in Tasmania.

The net export of fresh fruits in 1925-26 was
146,444,200 lb., with a value of 1,518,697. In 1918-
19 only 7,152,600 lb, had been exported, valued at
98,347. The expansion was due to the development of
the overseas markets and the decline of imports, due
mainly to the protective tariff on Fiji bananas. In 1924-
25 the Commonwealth produced 6,638,459 bushels of
apples, valued at 2,379,247, and of pears 1,632,267
bushels, valued at 403,325.

The net export of dried fruits in 1925-26 was

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 177

43,641,537 lb., returning 1,321, 495. The net export
of jams and jellies was in the same year 2,474,941 lb.
worth 73,634, a large decrease since 1918-19, when
military orders were still being placed in Australia,

Towards the latter part of 1928 an Australian firm
sent a consignment of concentrated orange and lemon
juice to London. The market rushed it. The firm re-
ceived by cable an order for 5000 gallons, together with
an intimation that further business would follow. This
was significant in view of the fact that Australia has over-
produced citrus fruits and that, unless a demand for them
or their products is created in other countries, there will
be considerable loss. There is little opportunity of ship-
ping fruits to England and Europe, because of the close
proximity of other citrus fruit-growing countries, but
there is a great opportunity of shipping fruit- juices, es-
pecially when concentrated five to one. This saves large
freights and containers. It is possible that in the future
there will be a great outlet for citrus fruit products from
Australia, bringing in foreign money and giving employ-
ment to many.

THE PROGRESS OF BEE-FARMING
IN AUSTRALIA

BEE-FARMING has made little progress in Australia except
in Victoria, where legislation has been passed to organ-
ise bee-pastures. The Forest Department administers
the Act. A bee-farm site is an area of up to ten
acres. A bee range is an area of a mile radius from the
bee-farm, to be used as a foraging ground. The bee-
farmer rents the tops of the trees onlyj he has no rights
over the land or the grass.

The return of honey from productive hives during
the year 1924-25 gave an average of 74 lb. of honey per
hive. This yield is second only to that of the 1917-18

N

1 78 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

season, when the figure rose to 76 Ib. In 1919-20 the
yield per hive was very low, but 1920-21 was, judging
by the records of a number of years, fairly normal.

THE PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURAL
EDUCATION

AGRICULTURAL Education was instituted by the New
South Wales Government during the year 1888. A
Department of Agriculture was founded, establishing a
complete system of Government farm-schools, apprentice-
schools, experiment farms, and demonstration farms
throughout the colony, with a complete head Agricultural
College at Richmond, on the Hawkesbury River. The
college is the largest in Australia, providing for some 200
resident students. The farm has an area of 3440 acres,
of which about 1000 are under cultivation. At an addi-
tional farm of about 116 acres of rich alluvial soil on the
banks of the Hawkesbury River a complete system of irri-
gation is carried out in order to train students who intend
to take up farming in the irrigation districts.

The South Australian Government established an
Agricultural College at Roseworthy in 1885. It opened
with fifteen students and soon became popular. The
college has about 2000 acres, 100 acres being under vines
and fruit-trees, and the rest divided between experimental
work, general farming, and live-stock raising.

In Victoria an Agricultural College was established
in 1885 at Dookie, on the fringe of the Goulburn Valley,
between Shepparton and Benalla. It has an area of 5920
acres. Another college has been established at Longere-
nong in the Wimmera District, eight miles from Hor-
sham, with an attached farm of 2386 acres. Both
colleges have ov^r 1000 acres under cultivation. The
revenue from 155,480 acres of Crown Lands is set apart
for the upkeep of these institutions, which are controlled

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 179

by a Council of eleven members five nominated by the
Governor-in-Council and five elected by Agricultural
Societies in the State. The Director of the Department
of Agriculture is an ex-officio member of the Council and
its Treasurer. Dookie has accommodation for 100 stu-
dents, Longerenong for 52; approximately 2000 have
passed through these colleges.

During 1895 the Queensland Government founded
a College for Agricultural Education at Gatton, on the
main southern line about 55 miles south of Brisbane. It
has accommodation for 60 resident students. In 1923
the College was re-organised as the Queensland Agricul-
tural High School, and was placed under the Department
of Public Instruction, which feeds it from the State Rural
Schools, Boys are admitted from the age of fourteen,,
or earlier in exceptional circumstances. There are senior
and junior courses of three years each, and in their sixth
year the students specialise in either dairying or agricul-
ture. At the apex of the system is the University course
in Agriculture. The College farm comprises 1 692 acres,
800 of which are under cultivation. Particular attention
is paid to dairying and to the building up of pure-bred
herds of Jerseys and Illawarra Shorthorns.

In 1914 Western Australia established a School of
Agriculture at the Narrogin State Farm, situated on the
Great Southern Railway some 162 miles from Perth.
The College provides a two years' course for seventy re-
sident pupils from fourteen to sixteen years of age. The ,
aim is to impart a sound general education as well as the
skill necessary to make efficient farmers.

THE PROGRESS OF IRRIGATION IN
AUSTRALIA

THE development of Irrigation Schemes in Australia
was retarded for many years by the opposition of

i8o FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

persons holding riparian interests, private irrigators not
having even such security of priority right in using river
waters for irrigation purposes as obtained in the Western
States o America up to a few years ago. Consequently,
except for the primitive irrigation by Chinese market-
gardeners, little interest was taken in the development of
irrigation until 1884, when Commissions were appointed
by the Governments of Victoria and New South Wales to
inquire into water conservation and irrigation.

The Victorian Commission delegated its Chairman,
Alfred Deakin, to visit the Western States of America
and there examine irrigation methods. His report, sub-
mitted in 1885, formed the basis of the Victorian Irriga-
tion Act of 1886, which vested all riparian interests in the
Crown, and made provision for the declaration of Dis-
tricts most suitable for irrigation and for the construction
of head-works of a national character. Further, it made
it competent for the Government to advance capital re-
quired for local works to trusts formed by the settlers
in suitable districts. These trusts were empowered to
levy upon irrigated lands rates that would cover interest
charges at four and a half per cent and a sinking fund of
one and a half per cent.

In 1887 irrigation works were started at Mildura
on the Murray River, in the heart of the mallee country.
Two blocks of land of about 25,000 acres each were made
available to the Chaffey Brothers, and they erected a Siki
plant which, with its four 6-inch pumps, lifted water from
the Murray into a lagoon whence it gravitated to the re-
quired levels to irrigate 12,000 acres.

The area is administered by the First Mildura Irri-
gation Trust, which was constituted in 1895. Holdings
under the early settlement schemes varied from 400 to
600 acres and were too large for intensive cultivation.
It was estimated, for example, that only half the water
from the Goulburn works was. utilised.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 181

The schemes in the Goulburn-Loddon Districts were
developed by trusts. At the beginning of 1900 arrange-
ments had been made to intercept the Goulburn by a weir
forty feet in height, and to divert the summer supply
into two channels. Similar works had been erected in
this district on the Campaspe and Loddon rivers and on
the south bank of the Murray. In the total, arrangements
for diverting 294,000 cubic feet per minute from the
Murray and its tributaries had been completed either
directly by, or with the sanction of, the Victorian Govern-
ment. Owing to the irregularity of the flow, the scheme
was only partially successful, since preparations for the
distribution of the water had been made before it had
been conserved.

Work on the Waranga reservoir was therefore be-
gun, but before it was completed the trusts were in
financial difficulties, and the Victorian Government de-
cided to Administer directly all irrigation schemes except
Mildura.

By the Victorian Water Act of 1905, a State Rivers
and Water Supply Commission was established. The
most important works under its control are connected with
the Goulburn River Gravitation Scheme, which supplies
an area of 870,000 acres in the valleys of the Goulburn,
Campaspe, and Loddon, for irrigation, domestic purposes,
or stock watering.

During 1925-26 the area irrigated in Victoria was
343,685 acres, of which 116,753 were under lucerne,
95,327 were growing cereals and annual fodder crops >
69,108 acres held vineyards, orchards, and gardens j and
the rest were pastures, etc. In addition to the land irrigated
there were large areas in the north-west (principally in
the Wimmera and Mallee districts) supplied with water
for domestic and stock purposes. The total area of
country lands artificially supplied with water for these

182 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

purposes during! 1925-26 was 14,400,000 (acres. In
1924-25 the Shepparton Co-operative Canning Factory
put up 526,000 dozen cans of fruit from irrigation areas,
and during the past five years the supply of fruit has in-
creased to so great an extent that co-operative companies
have been formed at Ardmona and Kyabram. The
number of water-acres supplied during 1924-25 was
39,212. Over 26,000 acres were under vines 18,515
in bearing. The yield was: grapes, 82,019 tons 5 raisins,
3191 tons 5 sultanas, 1186 tons; currants, 4654 tons.
Wine totalling 393,720 gallons was made.

The Royal Commission on Irrigation appointed by
the New South Wales Government in 1 884 sat until 1887
and issued three reports. Little was done apart from con-
stituting the Municipal Councils of Wentworth, Hay,
and Balranald as Irrigation Trusts for the erection of
pumping plants and the construction of distributory chan-
nels in their districts.

In 1896 the New South Wales Government took
over all riparian rights for irrigation purposes, provision
being made for the issue of licences to private irrigators.
In the following year ( 1 897) a distinguished Indian officer
visited the colony with a Commission from the Govern-
ment to report on certain proposals for irrigation works.
He selected the Murray and Murrumbidgee as rivers on
which projects might prove successful. A Water and
Drainage Act provided, inter alia, for the expenditure of
1,000,000 on the construction of hydraulic works within
the succeeding five years and an Act of 1906 empowered
the Government to begin work on the Murrumbidgee.
This comprised a concrete dam across the Murrumbidgee
River at Burrinjucfc, with a maximum depth of storage
of 200 feet and a capacity of 771,641 acre-feetj a
movable diversion weir across the Murrumbidgee at
Berembed, forty miles up-stream from Narrandera, in-
cluding a lock, sluice-way, and fifty-five chanoine wickets,

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 183

which can be lowered to pass freshets. The main canal,
with a capacity of 2000 cubic feet per second, takes off
from the river immediately above the weir and extends
for a distance of over ninety miles to below the town
of Griffith. There are numerous subsidiary canals for
serving the irrigation areas, together with bridges and
other structures, roadways to each farm, and a general
surface drainage system. Butter, bacon, and canning
factories have been provided for treating the products
of the areas, which are chiefly used for the growth of fruit
and for dairying.

In the meantime small irrigation areas at Curlwaa
and Hay were completed and served by pumping
from the Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers. The Curl-
waa system has a pumping capacity of 12,500 gallons
per minute. During 1925-26 some 5493 acre-feet of
water were supplied. The length of the main channels
is about ten miles. The machinery at Hay is capable
of pumping 4000 gallons of water per minute. During
1925-26 some 3270 acre-feet of water were supplied with
nine pumpings.

During 1924 work was commenced on the develop-
ment of a much larger area at Coomealla, for which water
will be pumped from the Murray River. Investigations
were also made as to the possibility of damming the Lach-
lan River at Wyangala, the Macquarie at Burrendong, and
determined. In 1924 a "Private Irrigation Act" was
the Hunter, Namoi, and Peel rivers at sites not then
passed, to foster private irrigation works.

In 1928 the great Wyangala dam, to cost at least
2,000,000 was well under construction. When finished,
it will change the aspect of the wheat-belt and add mil-
lions of pounds annually to the State's harvest returns.
Within the scope of the great water highway will come
millions of acres of western grazing lands. These leases
will expire in 1943, but legislation passed by the late

184 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Labour Government gives power to terminate the leases
on payment of compensation and to settle the areas on
conditional purchase and conditional lease tenures. Water-
roads and connecting railways will bring a dense popu-
lation to the Lachlan valley and beyond. In fifteen or
twenty years the hitherto arid and despised western region
will add another 2,000,000 acres to the wheat-belt and
raise the New South Wales harvest from 50,000,000
bushels to 100,000,000. The British Government is in
partnership with the New South Wales Government in
the adventure and is advancing the money. Linked with
the Wyangala irrigation scheme is the question of migra-
tion and a great land-settlement scheme. Nearly
1,000,000 acres of Crown Lands, which will carry between
600 and 700 families, will be opened up, in addition to
the large areas of privately owned property.

In the New South Wales Yanco-Mirrool Irrigation
areas there were, on November 1926, 1955 farms with a
total of 100,755 acres. In 1925 there were approxi-
mately 8724 acres under deciduous fruit-trees, 5519
under citrus fruits, 7640 under vines, and 2200 under
rice. There were 866 town blocks on the settlements,
and the estimated population was 13,000. The Hay and
Curlwaa Settlements are on the same basis. At Curlwaa
there are 10,550 acres divided into irrigable and non-
irrigable holdings. Of the irrigable area there are 1298
acres of orchards and vineyards, of which 1 099 are in full
bearing j there is also a small acreage of lucerne. The
estimated weight of dried fruits produced at Curlwaa in
1924-25 was 11,000 cwt, the principal yields being sul-
tanas, 4760 cwt., and currants, 2630 cwt.

The Hay Irrigation Area in 1926 held 4500 acres,
of which 1035 divided into blocks of from 3 to 34 acres
were used for irrigation* Dairying is the principal in-
dustry.

The Coomealla Irrigation Area is on the Murray

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 185

River, about nine miles from Wentworth. The first
section to be made available comprises 3090 acres, of
which 2314 have been sub-divided into 129 horticultural
farms and 43 residential holdings.

In 1893 the Renmark Irrigation Scheme was put
under the control of a Trust by the South Australian
Government. There was little other irrigation work un-
dertaken in the colony until 1910, when the State joined
Victoria and New South Wales in the great Murray River
projects.

Queensland had in 1926 an area of 21,000 acres
under irrigation. Under the Irrigation Act of 1922 a
Commissioner for Irrigation was appointed with wide
powers. His chief work has been to develop the scheme
for the utilisation of the waters of the Dawson River. An
arched concrete dam, which is projected at Nathan's gorge,
will impound 2,500,000 acre-feet of water, and the sub-
merged area will be 83,177 acres. In November 1926
the first section of the Dawson Valley area comprising
35,000 acres, divided into 373 farms was opened for
settlement, a pumping system being provided until the
gravitation scheme is completed. The whole area,
300,000 acres, is designed to be divided into 7000 farms.
An agreement that came into force in 1917 between
the Commonwealth, New South Wales, Victoria, and
South Australian Governments provides for the conserva-
tion and distribution of the waters of the Murray and
its tributaries, under the control of the Murray River
Commission, comprising representatives of the signatory
Governments. Provision has since been made for the
construction of the Hume Reservoir situated just above
Albury, on the junction of the Murray and the Mitta-
Mitta rivers with a storage capacity of 1,100,000 feet.
This has been increased to 2,000,000 feet. By December
1928 this reservoir had cost 6,500,000, or nearly
2,000,000 more than the original estimate*

186 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

THE PROGRESS OF MINING IN AUSTRALIA

Coal. Coal, the first mineral to be found in Australia,
was discovered by a party of escaping convicts, north of
Port Jackson possibly at Port Stephens in March
1791. Six years later some wrecked seamen, making their
way overland to Sydney from the Ninety-Mile Beach in
Victoria, discovered coal near Bulli. Nothing was done
with the finds until 1801, when Governor King estab-
lished a settlement on the Hunter River (Newcastle) to
obtain coal and timber, at the same time issuing a Pro-
clamation that coal in that district was a Crown monopoly.
For some time mines were worked by the Government.
They were then taken over by the Australian Agricultural
Company under a monopoly granted by the Imperial
Government.

In 1886 Edgeworth David located a coal seam near
Abermain, tracing it to Cessnock. In 1889 a syndicate
acquired 250 acres of this new field and began commercial
coal-mining.

In 1857 the first workings were made on the Bulli
coal-fields, and in 1858 the Bellambi Colliery was
opened. Developmental work followed, and in 1862
the South Bulli pit was opened.

Coal-mining on the western fields commenced in the
1860>s, the Hartley measures being opened up at Bowen-
fels in the Lithgow valley, and at Cooerwull. In 1869
the output from this field was 1360 tons.

In 1847 W. B. Clarke asserted that workable coal
would be found under Sydney. Borings carried out
towards the end of the century proved the existence of
the coal, but no attempt was made to work it until 1903,
when the Sydney Harbour Colleries Company was formed
to work a seam at Balmain, near Sydney. After many
vicissitudes the mine, which had a depth of 2784 feet,

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 187

was temporarily abandoned in 1917. From that date it
has been worked spasmodically.

A few scattered beds of coal, of minor value, occur
in outlying parts of the State. In 1915 sub-bituminous
black-coal measures were found to underlie an area of
about 23,000 acres in the Riverina District, These de-
posits have associated with them a large over-burden of
kaolin of high quality, the profits from which, it is hoped,
will go towards the cost of mining. A company was
formed to work this deposit, and a shaft has been sunk at
Coorabin, but no serious attempt has been made to utilise
the lignite deposits which occur in various localities, or
the Triassic coal measures of the Clarence and Richmond
river districts, which are intersected by bands and con-
tain a large percentage of ash.

The yield of the three main coalfields of the State
for the year 1925 was: Northern, 7,637,953 tonsj
southern, 2,052,963 tons; western, 1,705,283 tons; mak-
ing a total for the State of 1 1,396,199 tons. The whole
Australian output for the same year was 13,626,777 tons.
In 1925 there were produced 609,418 tons of coke, valued
at 942,448.

In Queensland valuable seams of anthracitic and
semi-anthracitic coal were found between the Mackenzie
and Dawson rivers. Two collieries near Baralba, on
the Dawson River line, are now worked, one by the
State and the other by the Mount Morgan Gold-Mining
Company.

Since 1919 the Queensland Government has worked
a coal-mine in the Bowen field. In the Cook district the
beds cover more than a thousand square miles. In 1925
the yields in the chief mining centres were: Ipswich,
614,055 tons; Darling Downs, 108,274 tons; Wide Bay,
119,704 tons; Central, 30,978 tons; Clermont, 62,204
tons; Bowen, 128,497 tons; Mt. Mulligan, 35,852 tons;
Mt. Morgan, 70,097 tons: total output, 1,177,173 tons.

i88 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

According to the Government Geologist the actual reserve
is 412,000,000 tons, and the probable reserve
2,201,000,000 tons.

In addition to black coal Victoria possesses extensive
fields of brown coal and lignite. Little effort was made
to utilise these until 1917, when an Advisory Board re-
commended the establishment of an open-cut mine at
Morwell. In 1925, 876,468 tons of brown coal were
produced.

In 1908 an extensive field of coal was discovered in
the Powlett River district, the seam being of good, clean,
hard coal, averaging six feet thick. The Victorian
Government decided to work the field, and in 1909 the
establishment of a State coal-mine was legalised.
Operations were begun towards the end of the year, and
a township, Wonthaggi, was laid out on modern lines*
The production of black coal in Victoria in 1925 was
534,246 tons, of which 468,146 were produced by the
State mine at Wonthaggi.

In 1889 true coal was found in the Collie district of
Western Australia, which borings proved to be about fifty
square miles in extent, with seams of a total thickness of
about 1 37 feet. The Collie railway was built and opera-
tions begun, the output in 1915 being 437,461 tons. Coal
has been discovered in Tasmania, and the yield for 1925
was 81,698 tons, over 66 per cent coming from the Corn-
wall and Mt. Nicholas collieries. The island possesses
beds of lignite and brown coal, not yet exploited.

The total production of coal in Australia for the
year 1927 was 13,522,960 tons, valued at 12,039,766,
and of brown coal 1,455,482, valued at 220,003.

Coffer. The earliest discovery of copper is said to have
been made at Macquarie Harbour, Tasmania, in 1827.
In New South Wales it was first found in January 1 829.
The first certain discoveries of the ores were made in

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 189

South Australia at Kapunda, near Adelaide, in 1842.
Samples of these were sent to England and, on a favour-
able report being received, a mine was opened. In 1 845
a shepherd named. Pickett found outcrops of copper ore
at Burra Burra, about 100 miles north of Adelaide. On
the biggest of these was established the famous Burra
Burra mine, which in thirty years produced about
5,000,000 worth of copper and paid 800,000 in divi-
dends on a nominal capital of 12,320, none of which
was called up.

In Western Australia the first actual finds of copper
ores were made south-east of Perth in December 1846.
In 1860 mines were opened at Wallaroo and Moonta in
South Australia, and in 1862 at Peak Downs and Mount
Perry in Queensland. In Victoria the only deposits of
size were found at Walhalla in Gippsland. At Cobar
in New South Wales, where copper was discovered in
1869, the richer surface ores were at first sent by team
to Bourke and shipped down the Darling River to smelt-
ing works at Port Adelaide. In 1920 most of the copper
mines at Cobar were dosed down and the plants dis-
mantled. At Wallaroo and Moonta operations have been
more continuous than elsewhere in Australia. The
Moonta Company was the first in Australia whose divi-
dends accumulated to a million pounds, and in 63 years
the two mines produced nearly 20,365,000 worth of
copper ore and paid over 2,600,000 in dividends.

In Tasmania no discoveries of copper of a commer-
cial value were made until 1893, when the Mt. Lyell
goldfield, north of Macquarie Harbour, was found to con-
tain plentiful supplies of native ore. In 1909 the Mt.
Elliot Company opened copper reduction works at Selwyn.
Similar works were opened at Kuridala in 191 1.

The principal fields in which copper is being, or has
been of late years, mined are near Cloncurry and at Mt
Morgan in Queensland} Cobar and Tottenham in New

ipo FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

South Wales 5 Wallaroo and Moonta in South Australia 5
West Pilbara and Northampton in Western Australia}
and Mt Lyell in Tasmania. In 1917 reduction works
were opened at Mt. Cuthbert.

At Mt. Morgan, which was worked for many years
solely as a gold-mine, copper-smelting began in 1906,
the blister copper being sent to Port Kembla in New South
Wales for final treatment. The collapse in copper prices
after 1918, followed by repeated strikes, resulted in the
closing down of this mine in 1921-22} later it was re-
opened, and a second closing down occurred in September
1925.

In 1917 Queensland (chiefly Mt. Morgan) produced
19,062 tons of copper. In 1923 the production had
fallen to 6242 tons, and in 1925 to 3908. In New
South Wales (chiefly Tottenham) 6576 tons were pro-
duced in 1917, but by 1925 this had fallen to 478. In
South Australia (chiefly Moonta and Wallaroo) 7213
tons were produced in 1917, 3523 in 1923, and only
570 in 1925. In Western Australia (chiefly at North-
ampton) 1501 tons were produced in 1917, 1057 in
1923, and 1201 in 1925. Tasmania (chiefly Mt Lyell)
produced 6616 tons in 1917, 6065 in 1923, and 6539
in 1925. The value of copper produced in the Com-
monwealth was nearly 5,000,000 in 1917} under
2,000,000 in 1919} and about 775,043 in 1925. In
1927 the total was 10,132 tons, valued at 607,038.

Gold. Gold discoveries occurred very soon after the first
settlement was made, the first recorded find being by
James McBrien, near the Fish River in New South Wales.
In 1839 Count Strzelecki discovered gold, and later re-
ported a further and larger find. In 1 843-44 a shepherd
named McGregor found gold in the Wellington district
of New South Wales.

Serious attempts at gold-mining followed E. H.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 191

Hargrave's report of his discoveries "at Lewes Ponds and
Summer Hill Creeks" in the Bathurst and Wellington
Districts. On the Government Geologist confirming
Hargraves's report, a gold-rush occurred. In July the
"Kerr's Hundredweight" (a nugget weighing 106 Ib.)
was discovered. For a considerable time after the fields
were open some 4000 to 5000 ounces of gold were sent
down to the city every fortnight. Then followed the
discoveries at Araluen (1851), Lambing Flat ( 1 8 60) ,,
Lucknow (1863), Hill End (1872), Yalwal (1873), and
Hillgrove (1888).

A new goldfield was discovered at Wyalong in New
South Wales in 1893, but the chief gold-mining by this
decade had centred in Western Australia,

In Victoria gold was found by a man named Smyth
near the Ovens River in 1844. In 1849 gold-quartz was
unearthed at Smythesdale, but nothing was made of these
finds and others until a much later date. Gold was dis-
covered at Clunes in 1850, and at Anderson's Creek in
185L

Thomas Hiscock found gold on the Buninyong
Ranges, and this find led to the discovery of the Ballarat
fields. Between August 1 and December 6, 1851, it
was estimated that 211,734 oz. of gold were brought
into Melbourne for shipment.

Extensive gold-finds were made in the Ovens dis-
trict in 1852, resulting in a rush of 20,000 miners to the
Mclvor, and the creation of the town of Heathcote. In
1854 discontent and dissatisfaction, due to the heavy
licensing fees and the oppressive rule by the gold-fields'
police, culminated in the uprising known as the Eureka
Stockade.

Samuel Stutchbury first discovered gold in Queens-
land in 1 852. In 1 8 56 a find was made at "Lord John's
Swamp" on the Canning Downs, and at Emu Creek on
the road to Gympie. The first gold-rush took place at

I 9 2 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Canoona in 1857. Ridgelands goldfields were opened
in 1867 and soon afterwards finds were made at Rose^
wood.

In October 1867 James Nash discovered Gympie,
and in 1869 gold was found on the Gilbert River. Then
followed the spectacular rush to the Palmer, on the Cape
York Peninsula. In 1882 the vast deposits of gold and
copper were discovered at Mt. Morgan, almost within
sight of Rockhampton.

The wealth of the Hamilton, well up in the Cape
York Peninsula, was not suspected until 1899, and the
short-lived but exciting and profitable Dee rush occurred
in 1903.

The value of the great mound of gold and copper,
afterwards called Mt. Morgan, was first discovered by
two brothers Morgan, who, prospecting on the Cawarral
goldfield, were storm-bound on John Gordon's selection
at the foot of the hill. The Morgan Brothers prospected
the hill and, finding large quantities of gold, pegged out
all the ground they could take up outside Gordon's selec-
tion. They found the necessary capital, bringing in
Thomas Skarratt Hall, William Knox D'Arcy, and Wil-
liam Patterson, and giving them a half -share in the dis-
covery. Later the syndicate purchased Gordon's free-
hold for 640 and erected a battery at the foot of the
mountain.

In 1 886 the Syndicate, which so far had won 59,024
oz. of gold from the mine, was converted into a limited
liability company, with a nominal capital of 1,000,000.

The mine was definitely closed down in September
1925, having in 39 years treated 9,196,605 tons of ore,
containing 5,305,979 oz. of gold and 139,427 tons of
copperj it had paid 9,379,1 66 in dividends. The mine
still contains approximately, 8,000,000 tons of low grade
ores, valued at 16,0(30,000, The Company went into
liquidation in 1927, having during the last six years of

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IK AUSTRALIA 193

its working paid 1,961,623 in wages out of a total
expenditure of 3,002,000. In December 1928 the
liquidators received a request from J. H. Kessal, acting on
behalf of a syndicate, for an option to purchase the
Queensland assets. The price is said to be 1 20,000, and
it is proposed to form a company to realise certain of
the valuable assets, keeping in view the ultimate object
of the re-opening of the mine. It is proposed to treat
immediately 660,000 tons of ores, previously blocked and
assayed.

During January 1846 a gold-find took place about
ten miles east of Adelaide, South Australia, and later this
mine was worked. In 1852 W. Chapman found rich
surface deposits above Donkey Gully. In 1871 gold was
discovered at Jupiter Creek and in scattered patches along
the main range from Echunga to Olary. The Teetulpa
goldfields were uncovered in October 1886, and 300,000
worth of gold was taken from a square mile of country.
Subsequently discoveries were made in the Tarcoola Dis-
trict, through which the East- West Transcontinental Rail-
way was afterwards built.

In the Northern Territory gold was discovered by
the men setting the poles for the overland telegraph line
from Darwin to Adelaide. Because of the difficulty of
reaching the probable fields, nothing was done in the way
of gold-mining in the Territory until a much later date.
Arltunga was the scene of a reported rich find in 1902,
but the yield so far has been small. In 1908 Driffield
was the centre of production. During the years 1909-18
very little advance was made in the industry. The chief
event was the finding of a new goldfield in the far north
of the Territory, at Tanami, some 450 miles south-east
of Wyndham.

As far back as 1824 a man named Cobb, working in
a road-gang near Georgetown, Tasmania, gave Captain
D'Arcy a piece of gold he had picked up. This is the

194 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

first record of the metal in the island. In 1852 an
alluvial deposit was found by Kieling Richardson near
Fingal. Seven years later James Smith discovered gold
at the Forth, and Peter Leete reported a find at the
Calder. The quartz reefs at Fingal and Waterhouse
were uncovered in 1869. The Waterhouse reefs were
not worked until 1871 and soon petered out. In 1877
the Tasmania gold-mine was opened at BeaconsfiekL
Then followed the discoveries at Lisle ( 1 878) and Branx-
holm (1883), and the famous Mt. Lyell deposits of gold
and copper (1886).

In 1861, F. K. Panter, a Western Australian Inspec-
tor of Police, found specimens of gold-quartz east of
Northam. No further finds were recorded until gold
was found at Peterwangy. In 1 873 a quartz reef was un-
covered at Kendenup, but no fields were established until
the discoveries of 1883. On May 20, 1886, the Kimber-
ley goldfield was proclaimed. In 1887 gold was found
at Southern Cross, and promising reefs were opened at
Mallina in 1888. In the same year finds were made at
Yilgarn and at Pilbara.

Alluvial gold was reported from the Murchison in
1891. A year later Bayley and Ford, who had mined
gold on the Murchison, made their way to Southern Cross
and camped at the native well near Coolgardie. Here
they found gold, and after a month's work succeeded
in tracking up the lead and locating the famous Cool-
gardie reef,

Kalgoorlie "HannanV was discovered in 1893 by
Flannigan and Hannan, who were on their way to a new
gold-rush about fifty miles north-east of Coolgardie.
Bardoc, "the 45-mile," was located in August of the same
year and "Siberia" in October. In 1 894 Hall and Speak-
man pioneered the Mt. Jackson district, and in the same
year rich alluvial was found at the Pinnacles and Kanowna.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 195

Bulong, the Norseman field, and Menzies were also dis-
covered in 1894.

The Yalgoo, Niagara, and Kunanalling goldfields
were located in 1895, as were also the Nannine fields.
The Mt. Magnet and Donnybrook districts were pro-
spected in 1 898. In 1 899 the Jackson's Claim at Donny-
brook and the Merton's Reward mine were located, and
in 1900 gold was discovered at Yundamindera and at Mt.
Higgins (North Coolgardie), Willcena (Peak Hill),
Ninghan (Yalgoo), Boodalyerrie Creek (Pilbara), Can-
veil, Reedy ? s and Weld Range (Murchison), and Yal-
lowdine and Dunladgin (Yilgarn).

In 1927 the Commonwealth produced 508,303 oz.
of fine gold, valued at 2,159,076.

Diamonds. Diamonds were first discovered in Australia by
E. H. Hargraves near Guyong, in New South Wales,
late in June 185L Further deposits were found in the
Macquarie River, but no mining took place until 1867,
when a considerable deposit was found in the Cudgegong
Valley. In the same year diamonds were found near Bin-
gara, and later about the Gwydir River, at Oakey Creek
and at Mittagong. A few deposits have been found in
Victoria and Western Australia, but the bulk of the Aus-
tralian diamonds are derived from the Inverell-Tingha
District. The total production up to 1926 was 202,168
carats, valued at 144,452.

Iron and Steal. Iron deposits were known from the
earliest days of the Australian settlement. William Kent
took specimens of iron ore to England in 1800, and
Simeon Lord in 1812 proposed to open workings in
Northern Tasmania. In 1852 works were established near
Mittagong, and in 1875 attempts to smelt local and
western ores were made at Lithgow.

In 1900 the Broken Hill Proprietary Company ac-

I 9 6 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

quired deposits of iron ore, showing 66.68 per cent o
metallic iron, at Iron Knob and Iron Monarch, on the
western side of Spencer Gulf in South Australia. Origi-
nally it had been intended to use the ore as flux in the
Company's Port Pirie smelters, but in 191 1 it was decided
to exploit the deposits for the manufacture of iron and
steel, and in 1 91 5 works were opened at Newcastle. By
the end of August in that year 36,214 tons of pig-iron
had been produced. In the following eight months
56,000 tons of steel were made, and up to the end of
1921 the production of steel ingots averaged about
190,000 tons annually.

Industrial disturbances caused the closing down of
the works, but in 1923 they were re-opened. The average
.annual output of steel for the two years 1924-25 was
332,570 tons.

In January 1908 C. H. Hoskins purchased the Lith-
,gow (N.S.W.) plant (established in 1874). Ironstone
was obtained from Carcoar (N.S.W.), and in the first
year 3946 tons of steel ingots were made, as well as over
30,000 tons of pig-iron, from 51,206 tons of local ore.
in 1908-13 the average annual yield was 3811 tons of
steel and over 36,000 tons of pig-iron, from about 60,000
tons of ore. In 1909 a system of bounties came into
force, and up to the end of 1913 the Lithgow works re-
vceived 105,849. In 1914 the rate of bounty was re-
duced to two-thirds, but the production nearly doubled.
In 1914-17 the average annual production was 22,472
tons of steel and 62,262 tons of pig-iron, from 113,027
tons of ore. Figures for 1921-25 show a yearly output
of 8 1,772 tons of pig-iron from 151,628 tons of ore.

For the Commonwealth of Australia 1 18,951 tons of
pig-iron were produced in 1927, valued at 654,230$
722,93 1 tons of iron ore and flux, valued at 83 1,295 and
5011 tons of iron oxide valued at 3116*

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 197

Silver and Lead. The first reports of silver in Australia
were made by Count Strzelecki in 1839, but only small
quantities of the ore were found up to the time of Charles-
Rasp's sensational discovery at Broken Hill, New South
Wales, in 1882. At that time a few deposits were
worked at Inverell (1870), Sunny Corner near Rydal
(1875), and Boorook (1878).

In 1883 a boundary rider named Charles Rasp^
pegged out 40 acres of great ironstone outcrop as a tin-
mine. A syndicate of seven, contributing 70 each, was
formed and took up six more blocks. They sank a shaft,
and at 100 feet down struck chloride of silver. Rich
ore was later discovered on the property.

In August 1885 the Broken Hill Proprietary Com-
pany was floated. During later years other companies-
were promoted on the property of the syndicate by the
parent company, which eventually retained only three of
the original seven leases taken up. The town of Broken
Hill grew up beside the mining property, and in 1889*
its population numbered 17,000.

In 1885 the mine produced 108,281 and in 1888
1,001,848. In 1891 production had increased to
3,529,043. The output at the end of 1925 was ap-
proximately 128,000,000 and dividends paid by the
mining companies were close upon 30,000,000. The
quantity of ore extracted totalled 35,000,000 tons, the
maximum output for one year (1913) being 1,744,177
tons. In May 1925 the ore developed and the quantity
available for extraction was estimated by the Government
Geologist at over 13,000,000 tons, with unknown possi-
bilities beyond.

The most important silver-lead field next to Broken
Hill is at Yerranderie, in the hills behind Picton, New
South Wales, where in 1925 1211 tons of ore yielded
111,532 oz. of silver, 217 oz. of gold, and 317 tons of
lead. One stope of the Silver Peaks mine on this field

ip8 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

showed over ten feet of solid galena, yielding in 1923
120 oz. of silver and 33 per cent of lead per ton. A
mine at Kangiara, near Yass, obtained from 146 tons of
ore 2575 oz. of silver and 37 tons of lead, besides 11
oz. of gold. Condobolin in the west, Tumbarumba in
the south; and Tenterfield and Emmaville in the north
are also silver-producing districts. Some very rich silver
ore only has been mined at Rockvale, in the neighbour-
hood of Armidale.

All native gold contains a percentage of silver, and
in Victoria that is the only form in which silver is ob-
tained. In Queensland the chief yields in 1925 were:
Chillagoe, silver 10,43 2 5 lead 60,785; Herberton,
silver 9370; lead 15,162; Mount Morgan, silver
2577 (recovered from gold) ; Etheridge, silver 2435;
lead 11,896.

In 1923 a new silver-lead field was discovered at
Mt. Isa in the Cloncurry district. The lodes are distri-
buted over an area five miles long by one mile wide along
the west bank of the West Leichhardt River. Complex
silver-lead ore occurs also at Silver Spur. In the same year
ores were found between Ooloo Dam and Mount Distance,
in South Australia, but no mining followed. In Western
Australia 81,226 oz.,of silver were obtained as a by-pro-
duct in 1925, and 4854 tons of lead and silver-lead ore,
valued at 83,095 were exported. The Northampton
mineral field yielded 37,865 tons of lead. Tasmania,
in 1924, produced 494,782 oz. of silver and 4559
tons of lead. Of silver the Magnet mines returned
151,084 oz., the North Mt. Farrell, 194,702 oz., Zeehan,
41,464 oz., Mount Lyell, 147,376 oz., and Round Hill
24,169 oz. The principal lead producers were North
Mt Farrell (1933 tons), Zeehan (500), and Magnet
(900).

In the Northern Territory silver-lead ores are found
near Pine Creek, Lawn Hill, and at Mt. Shoebridge, but

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 199

owing to transportation costs the locations have not been
worked.

In the Commonwealth during the year 1927, 882,786
oz. of silver were produced, valued at 103,392, and
291,709 tons of silver-lead ore, etc., valued at 3,512,54-9.
In the same year 6502 tons of lead were produced,
valued at 157,815.

Tin. Tin, in Australia, was first discovered by W. B.
Clarke, who reported it from New England and Darling
Downs. In 1871 the Mount Bischoff mine, in Tasmania,
was discovered, and in 1872 deposits were uncovered at
Inverell in New South Wales and at Warwick in Queens-
land. The Herberton (Queensland) tin-field was opened
in 1879 and the Western Australian fields in 1888.

Australia reached its highest annual production of
tin (value 1,509,787) in 1907, in which year Tasmania
and Queensland yielded 9500 tons. Recently the yield
has considerably decreased, mainly because of low prices
and the high production costs. The average production
values for 1919-24 are: New South Wales, 264,806;
Tasmania, 253,298; Queensland, 141,317. Other
States produced small quantities. The Commonwealth
production of tin averaged up to 717,110. The total
quantity of tin produced in the Commonwealth during
1927 was 3507 tons, valued at 842, 430.

Ofals. Boulder opal was discovered in Queensland about
1875, and about 1877 similar stones were found in New
South Wales on the Abercrombie River. Sandstone opal
was discovered in Western Queensland about 1886, occur-
ing in a belt of country about 250 miles wide extending
about 550 miles north-west from Hungerford, on the
New South Wales border, to Kynuna, at the head of the
Diamantina River.

In 1903 prospectors along the Upper Darling River

200 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

struck at Lightning Ridge, near Walgett, a type of opal
distinguished by the black body-ground, in which colours
gleam. This was at first difficult to market, but by 1910
Lightning Ridge was yielding two-thirds of the Austra-
lian output, and in 1914 eighty per cent of it.

In 1 9 1 5 a new opal-field was discovered in the Stuart
Ranges, west of Lake Eyre in South Australia. This
field produces a light opal, identical with the White Cliffs
stone, but occasional specimens show an inky colouring
matter. No production was recorded in 1922-23, and
in New South Wales only 3040 worth was won all
but 40 worth from Lightning Ridge j in Queensland
500 worth. These figures cannot be absolutely relied
upon since parcels of stone are often disposed of privately
and not recorded. Small quantities are found in the
Beechworth district of Victoria. The total of opal pro-
duced in the Commonwealth during 1927 was valued at
22,910.

Asbestos. Asbestos has been found near Barraba and
Gundagai, in New South Wales. The average annual
yield for 1920-22 was 723 tons* During 1923 the mines
were abandoned. In Queensland a belt of country be-
tween Cawarral and Canoona showed seams, but the fibre
lacked tensile strength. In South Australia deposits of the
"mountain leather" and "mountain cork" varieties have
been found at Oollawirra, and finds of the blue variety
have been made at Eudunda and at Hawker. In West-
ern Australia the fibrous chrysolite variety has been found
south-east of Cossack, between the Yule and the Nulla-
gine. The average annual yield in 1923-25 was 80 tons.
In 1918, at Anderson's Creek, in Tasmania, asbestos was
mined and yielded 2854 tons, valued at over 5000;
in 1919 a small quantity was raised, but there has been
no production since.

SOME WELL KNOWN CITIZENS OF THE
PERIOD

SOME WELL KNOWN CITIZENS OF
THE PERIOD

SIR EDMUND BARTON (1849-1920)

Born at Glebe, Sydney, on 18th January 1849.
Educated at Sydney Grammar School and University of
Sydney (B.A. 1868; M.A. 1870). Called to N.S.W.
Bar in 1871 and became Q.C. in 1889. Contested Uni-
versity seat in Parliament unsuccessfully in 1 877 and suc-
cessfully in 1879 but in that year University represen-
tation was abolished. Became successively member for
Wellington (1880-1), East Sydney (1882-7 and 18914),
Hastings and Macleay (1898-9). Interposed two terms
(1887-91 and 1897-8) as member of Legislative Coun-
cil. Speaker Legislative Assembly 1883-7. Protectionist,
attached to the George Dibbs party and under him Attor-
ney-General in 1889 Ministry and also (for a time) in
the 1891-4 Ministry. Resigned to devote himself en-
tirely to Federation. Representative for N.S.W. in 1891
convention and one of the four members chosen to draft
the Constitution Bill. In 1891 stood for East Sydney
and joined the Dibbs Ministry as leader of the Federa-
tion party at the direct request of Sir Henry Parkes,
who had retired from politics. Carried pro-Federal reso-
lution in Parliament but found the dual position impos-
sible and resigned from Ministry in December 1893.
Devoted his time to speeches in favour of Federation*
Headed poll for Federal Convention elections (N.S.W.)
in 1897 and was made leader of the Convention and
Chairman of a Constitutional Committee. Chairman of
sub-Committee that drafted the new Bill. Appointed

204 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

leader of the Delegation to London to see the Common-
wealth Bill through the English Parliament. Was first
Prime Minister of the Commonwealth. Resigned in 1903
and accepted position of Chief- Justice on the High
Court of Australia. Died January 7th, 1920. (P.C.
1901; G.CM.G. 1902).

O. C. BEALE.

In 1868, being then 18 years old, Mr. O. C. Beale
was cashier in the firm of Brooks, Robinson and Company
of Melbourne. Later he visited New Zealand to open up
business there and became a partner in 1875.

In 1879 Mr. Beale commenced business under the
name of Beale and Company, as an importer of sewing-
machines, to which Pianos were soon added. The opera-
tions developed rapidly.

In view of the extensive turnover, the manufactur-
ing of both pianos and sewing-machines was decided upon
and local production began in 1893.

The manufacture of sewing-machines was relin-
quished in order to concentrate upon pianos, the factories
being now the largest and best equipped Piano Plant in
the British Empire.

Mr. Beale holds the Freedom of the City of London,
being a Liveryman of the Worshipful Company of Musi-
cians, a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature Lon-
don.

When the Chambers of Manufactures of Australia
formed their Federal Association in 1904, he was elected
their first President, and has ever since remained on the
Council.

For some years he was a Trustee of the Savings Bank
of New South Wales, and is now a Trustee of the Austra-
lian Museum.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 205

SAMUEL BENNETT (1815-1878)

Born at Camborne, England, 1815. Arriveu /ius-
tralia in 1 841 under engagement to the proprietors of the
"Sydney Herald" (now "Sydney Morning Herald"),
then Messrs. Stephens & Stokes, when Messrs Kemp &
Fairfax took over the newspaper became head of the print-
ing department, which position he occupied for over 17
years. 1859 bought the "Empire," then a daily news-
paper with a weekly edition, until 1 875. 1 867 commenced
publication of the "Evening News." Three years later
he added a weekly paper, "The Town and Country Jour-
nal." In 1875 he amalgamated the "News" and the
"Empire."

He contributed much to the columns of his papers
and in 1865 commenced "A History of Australian Dis-
covery and Development" which appeared as a serial in
the "Evening News." Later in the year he found that
business affairs forbade further historical research and
published what had been written (to 1831) in a book.

Died at Little Coogee, near Sydney, 1878.

SIR EDWARD NICHOLAS COVENTRY BRAD-
DON (1829-1 904)

Son of Henry Braddon, of Cornwall, England, and
elder brother of Miss Braddon, the novelist. Born 1 829.
In 1847 he' went to Calcutta to work for a cousin's firm.
Later joined the Government Railway Service as assistant
in the Santhal district, where he helped to suppress an
outbreak. Was appointed Assistant Commissioner in
1857. During the Mutiny he raised a Santhal battalion
and served under Sir George Yule, with much credit. For
the next twenty years he occupied various posts in the
Indian Revenue Service.

Retiring in 1878 he settled in Tasmania and the
following year entered the Assembly as member for West

206 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Devon. Became Leader of the Opposition in 1886. After
refusing the Premiership he joined the Fysh Ministry in
1887 as Minister of Lands and Works. 1888 he was
Tasmanian Representative on the Federal Council and
the same year became Agent General. Recalled to Tas-
mania in 1893 he was re-elected for his old constituency.
In 1894 became Premier, retaining office until late in
1 899 taking a large share in Federation. He represented
Tasmania at the Convention of 1897-8 and was mainly
responsible for the famous "Braddon Clause." Was
elected to the Federal House of Representatives in 1901
and died in 1904, (K.CM.G., 1891} P.C., 1897).

SIR JOHN COX BRAY (1842-1894)

Born in Adelaide, South Australia, 1842. Educated
at St. Peter's College, England, and trained for the law*
Admitted to the South Australian Bar in 1870. Entered
Parliament 1871 as member for East Adelaide. Sat for
the constituency, continuously until his resignation in
1892.

In 1875 he became Minister for Justice in the Blyth
Ministry 5 Attorney-General in the Colton Ministry,
1877j Leader of the Opposition 1877-1881} Premier,
1881-1884. In 1885 he joined the Downer Ministry as
Chief Secretary and later in 1887 took the portfolio of
Treasurer. 1888 was elected Speaker, but resigned in
1890 to take office as Chief Secretary in the Play ford
Ministry. 1 892 he was appointed Agent General to Lon-
don. He resigned, through illness, in 1894, and died at
sea in that year.

He represented South Australia in the Intercolonial
Conference of 1883 and presided over the Australian
Natives' Association Conference of 1890, and was one
of his State's Representatives at the Convention of 1891*
(K.C.M,a, 1890).

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 207

SIR JAMES BURNS (1846-1923)

Born at Polmont, Scotland, 1 846, Educated at Edin-
burgh High School. Migrated with an elder brother to
Queensland 1862 and after some years of pastoral work
was about to join his brother in the management of a
business near Brisbane when gold was discovered at Gym-
pie. He was the first man from Brisbane to reach the
field and besides acquiring several mines controlled three
stores at the mining centres. 1870 visited Scotland and
on returning found that the discovery of gold at Charters
Towers was playing an important part in the development
of Townsville. He settled there and established a busi-
ness as Merchant and Shipping Agent. 1877 he took
into partnership Robert Philp whom he left in charge
when he decided to settle in Sydney. In 1883 he
founded the firm of Burns, Philp & Co., amalgamating
his own business at Sydney, Thursday Island and Nor-
manton with the businesses carried on in Philp's name
at Charters Towers, Townsville and Cairns,

1888 Burns enlisted in the New South Wales Lancer
Regiment. In 1891 he was made Captain of the Parra-
matta Troop; and in 1897 became Colonel of the Regi-
ment, rising in 1904 to Brigadier-Colonel commanding
the first brigade of the Australian Light Horse. Retired
in 1907 in which year he was nominated to the Legisla-
tive Council. For nineteen years he was President of the
New South Wales Highland Society and for twelve years a
Trustee of the Australian Museum. In his later years his
interests were in the Burnside Home for Orphans, built
on his own land at Gowan Brae, near Parramatta, and
largely endowed by him. Died at Gowan Brae, 1923.
<XCM.G., 1917).

208 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

THE HON. SIR JOSEPH HECTOR CAR-
RUT HERS

Born at Kiama, N.S.W., 21st December 1857. Edu-
cated at Fort Street Public School, Goulburn High School
and Sydney University, graduated B.A. 1 873, M.A. 1 875.

Articled to A. H. McCulloch in 1875 and after ad-
mission as a Solicitor practised for fifty-one years in Syd-
ney. Elected to N.S.W. Legislative Assembly in
1886 and re-elected for 22 years for same Electorate until
1908 when he resigned and was appointed to the Legis-
lative Council of N.S.W. in 1908, of which Chamber he
is still a member. Thus for 43 years he has been continu-
ously a member of the State Legislature.

In 1896 he was elected one of the ten delegates for
N.S.W. to the Australasian Federal Convention and as a
member thereof assisted in framing the present Constitu-
tion of the Commonwealth of Australia. Member of five
State Ministries, viz., in 1888, Minister of Education in
Government of Sir Henry Parkes and until 189L From
1895 to 1901 member of Reid Government as Minister
for Lands and Colonial Treasurer. From 1904 to 1908
Premier and Treasurer in his own Ministry. In 1919
and again in 1921-24 Vice-President Executive Council in
Government of Sir George Fuller. Created K.C.M.G.
in 1908. Has held positions as President N.S.W.
Chamber of Agriculture (ten years), Trustee of National
Park, Public Art Gallery, Council of Royal Agricultural
Society, Commonwealth Commissioner Cook Celebrations
at Hawaii 1928. (K.C.M.G. 1908 5 LL.D., M.L.C.
1908).

JOHN HENRY CHALLIS (1809-1880)

Born in England in 1809 and migrated to Sydney,
New South Wales, in 1829. Employed as a clerk by
Marsden & Flower, General Merchants. The firm was

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 209

re-organised in 1 842 and Challis was taken into partner-
ship, on his merits and it is believed without capital. The
new firm, Flower, Salting & Co., became extremely
wealthy when the gold discoveries expanded Australian
commerce and in 1855 was dissolved, the partners retiring
on their acquired wealth, which in Challis 3 case amounted
to more than 100,000. This included, beside other pro-
perty, a large block of land along the shore of Woolloo-
mooloo Bay, extending eastwards to Macleay Street.

After retiring Challis lived almost wholly in Eng-
land, except for a short visit to New South Wales in 1859.
He was interested in the University of Sydney and he
left it the whole of his residuary estate, subject to his
widow's life interest, and a five-year period of accumula-
tion after her death. He died in France in 1880 and his
widow died in 1884. In 1890 the University benefited
by about 200,000 which was increased in 1905, when
certain annuities fell due, by nearly 80,000.

REVEREND WILLIAM BRANWHITE CLARKE
(1798-1878)

Born at East Bergholt, England, 1798. Educated at
Dedham Grammar School and Jesus College, Cambridge
(B.A. 1 821 } M.A. 1 824). At the University he acquired
enthusiasm for and considerable knowledge of geology
and also wrote verse, being defeated by Macaulay for the
Newdigate Prize. 1821 he took Holy Orders (Priest
1 824) and spent the next eighteen years travelling through
England and Europe engaged in scientific, mainly geo-
logical, investigation. In 1833 he was given the living
of Longfleet, in Dorset, and became Chaplain to the
Bishop of Salisbury, Arrived in Australia 1839. On
arrival in Sydney he was appointed to the parish of Castle
Hill and Dural, together with the nominal headmaster-
ship of The King's School, at Parramatta. In 1840 he
resigned the headmastership and transferred to paroch-

2io FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

ial work at Campbelltown. In 1 846 he became incumbent
of St Thomas's Church, North Sydney, and remained
there until 1870.

Clarke's name is chiefly associated with the discovery
of gold on the Australian continent although he was not
actually the first discoverer. In 1851 he was commissioned
by the Government of New South Wales to make survey
of the southern districts of the colony "with a special view
to the indications of gold" and spent nine months on the
Monaro, around Kosciusko and on the Upper Murray,
without much result, so far as gold discoveries were con-
cerned. For his work then and previously, he was
awarded 6000 by the Colonial Governments. In 1877
he received the Murchison Medal of the London Geolo-
gical Society for his work on the New South Wales coal-
fields 5 and in 1849 announced his discovery of deposits
of tin.

Was appointed Secretary of the Australian Museum
in 1841 and retired in 1845. Was a Member of the
Council of the Australian Philosophical Society when it
was resuscitated in 1850; its Vice-President when it be-
came the Philosophical Society of New South Wales in
1 856; and one of its Vice-Presidents when in 1 866 it was
transformed to the Royal Society of New South Wales.
In 1 876 he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society for
his work on gold discoveries at a time when that honour
was very rarely conferred for work in Australia. After
1870, when he retired from clerical work, he devoted
himself entirely to science and died in 1878. After his
death the Government bought his collection of fossils for
7000.

SIR DANIEL COOPER (1821-1902)

Born at Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire, England,
1821. Educated at University College, London. Re-
ceived his early mercantile training with a firm trading

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 211

at Havre, France, and in 1 843 came to Sydney, N.S.W.,
to join his father's firm of Holt & Cooper, which in 1851
became Cooper & Co.

1 849 he was elected to the N.S. W. Legislative Coun-
cil by the Counties of St. Vincent and Auckland and re-
tired at the dissolution of 1851. Visited England several
times during the next few years and gained prominence
as the originator of the Australian Fund to relieve the
distress caused by the Crimean War. 1856 was elected to
the new Legislative Assembly by Sydney Hamlets ; held
the seat until 1859 and then transferred to Padding ton.
Was Speaker to three Parliaments and resigned the
position 1860 on account of failing health and retired
from politics. Died in London 1902.

Cooper's wealth, acquired from commerce and in-
vestments in land was largely spent on philanthropic
works in England and Australia. He was Senator of the
University of Sydney from 1857 to 1861 and created a
fund from which one graduate and three undergraduate
scholarships are now provided. His chief benefactions
were connected with the distress caused in Lancashire by
the American Civil War and for his gifts and services in
that period he received a baronetcy. On several occasions
he acted as Agent-General for New South Wales. (Kt.
Bach. 1857; Bart 1863} K.C.M.G. 1880; G.CM.G.
1888).

SIR WILLIAM PORTUS CULLEN

Born near Jamberoo, N.S.W., 1855. Educated at
the University of Sydney (B.A. 1880; M.A. 1882; LL.B.
1885; LL.D. 1887). Called to the bar in 1883 and soon
took high rank on the Equity side. Became member for
Camden in the Legislative Assembly and in 1 895 was ap-
pointed to the Legislative Council. He was interested in
the University and was elected a Fellow in 1896; made
Vice-Chancellor in 1908-1910 and Chancellor in 1914.

212 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

In 1896 he introduced into the Council a Bill for Uni-
versity Reform, including the reforms thai were eventu-
ally carried in 1 9 1 2 a limited term of office for Senators
and election of them by postal votes.

Was made Chief Justice of New South Wales in
1910 with a dormant commission as Administrator of the
Government during any absence of the Governor. This
was superseded in the same year by a definite appoint-
ment by the King to the post of Lieutenant-Governor.
He resigned the Chief Justiceship on January 28th, 1925.
He continues to take an active interest in many move-
ments affecting the welfare of Australia. (Kt. Bach
1911; K.C.M.G. 1912).

WILLIAM BEDE DALLEY (1831-1888)

Born Sydney, 1831. Educated Sydney College and
St Mary's School. Called to N.S.W. bar 1856 (Q.C
1877). Succeeded Sir Henry Parkes for City of Sydney
1856 in first parliament under responsible government.
Represented Cumberland boroughs in 1858-9 parliament
and in the following parliament represented Windsor.
Resigned Feb. 1860. From Nov. 1858 to Feb. 1859
was Solicitor-General in Cowper ministry. Was one of
2 1 new members John Robertson appointed to Legislative
Council in May 1861 and was Commissioner for Emigra-
tion, with Parkes as fellow-commissioner. Represented
Carcoar 1862-1864. Member of Legislative Council
1870-1873. In 1875 re-appointed to Council and was
appointed Attorney General 1875-1877. Resigned from
Council 1880, but was again in Council as Stuart's Attor-
ney General in 1883. In 1884 Stuart became ill and
Dalley was acting Premier. In that office he offered Eng-
land a contingent of New South Welshmen for the Sudan
war following the death of General Gordon. Refused
knighthood and chief-justiceship and under pressure ac-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 213

cepted Privy Councillorship in 1887 the first Australian
to receive that honour. Died Sydney 28th October
1888.

HENRY CAREY DANGAR (1830-1917)

Born at Port Stephens in 1 830 and educated at Syd-
ney College and the University of Cambridge (M.A.
1857). Returned to New South Wales to take up pas-
toral life. Entered politics in 1874 as member for West
Sydney and was a member of Parliament for practically
the rest of his life (West Sydney 1874-7 5 East Sydney
1 880-2$ nominated to the Legislative Council 1 883). He
died in Sydney in 1917.

FREDERICK HOLKHAM DANGAR (1831-1921)

Third son of Henry Dangar. He preferred ship-
ping to sheep-stations and founded the shipping firm of
Dangar, Gedye & Co., which he managed until 1882. In
that year he disposed of his many Australian interests and
retired to London where he died on 26th March, 1921.
He was especially interested in the training of officers for
the British Mercantile Marine and had a share in the well-
known training ships Medway and Port Jackson.

SIR FREDERICK MATTHEW DARLEY (1830-
1910)

Born on 1 8th September, 1 830, in Dublin. Educated
at Royal School, Dungannon, and Trinity College, Dub-
lin. He was called to Irish Bar 1853. He emigrated to
Australia in 1862 and was admitted to the N.S.W. Bar in
the following June (Q.C. 1878). In 1868 he was nomi-
nated for the Legislative Council and was a member for
1 8 years. He was Vice-President of the Executive Coun-
cil, 1881, and held the office to 1883. In 1884 he and his

214 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

brother-in-law, Sir Peter Scratchley, were appointed a
commission to enquire into the defences of the Colony.
He declined the Chief Justiceship in 1886, but later in
the same year accepted. In 1 891 he was made Lieutenant-
Go vernor and was five times Acting Governor. In 1902,
while on a visit to England he was appointed to the South
African War Commission. He resigned his offices in 1909
and went to England* Died there January 4th, 1910.
(Kt. Bach. 1887; K.CM.G. 1897j G.C.M.G. 1901}
P.C. 1905).

SIR GEORGE RICHARD DIBBS (1834-1904)

Born in Upper Fort Street, Sydney, 1834. Edu-
cated at St. Phillip's Church of England School and Aus-
tralian College. Commenced business with a brother in
the firm of J. C. Dibbs & Co. 1 865, settled at Valparaiso
as a corn factor and successfully ran the Spanish blockade
with cargoes of wheat and flour. Returned to Sydney,
he resumed his previous business extending it to include
shipowning and importing.

1874 he entered public life. Was elected to the
Assembly for West Sydney. Defeated for that seat 1 877.
1882 was returned for St. Leonards and in the next year
was Treasurer in the Stuart Ministry. In 1 885 he formed
his first ministry. He was Colonial Secretary (1-886-
1887). In 1889 he formed his second ministry and was
defeated. In 1 891 he formed his third ministry and, dur-
ing a subsequent visit to England, he was knighted per-
sonally by Queen Victoria. At the election of 1 894, which
was fought on the fiscal question, he was defeated and re-
signed. In the following year he lost his seat in Parlia-
ment and retired from politics. In 1896 was appointed
Managing Trustee of the Government Savings Bank of
New South Wales and held that position until his death
in 1904.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 215

SIR THOMAS ALLWRIGHT DIMS (1832-1923)

Born Sydney, 1832, and educated at the Australian
College. Entered the employ o the Commercial Bank-
ing Company, Sydney, 1 847, and remained with that Bank
for the remainder of his life. In 1887 he was made
General Manager of the Bank and for twenty-eight years
in that capacity greatly influenced the financial position of
New South Wales, being to a great extent the Financial
Adviser for twenty-five years of every New South Wales
ministry. In July 1915 he retired, remaining a Director
of the Bank.

He took a keen interest in all movements that could
help soldiers and gave his house and estate, known as
Greythwaite, on the heights of North Sydney, as a home
for disabled men. For many years he gave the Church
and Synod the benefit of his long experience in its financial
affairs. He died in 1923. (Kt. Bach. 1917).

SIR JOHN WILLIAM DOWNER (1844-1915)

Born Adelaide, 1844. Educated at St. Peter's Col-
lege, trained for the law. Admitted to the local bar in 1 867
and made a Q.C. in 1878. In that year he was elected
to the Legislative Assembly from Barossa, which constitu-
ency he represented until 1901. From 1881 to 1884 he
was Attorney-General in the Bray Ministry and from
1885 to 1887 and from 1892 to 1893 he was Premier.
He represented his Colony at the Sydney Convention of
1883; the Colonial Conference in London of 1887; and
the Federal Conventions of 1891 and 1897-8. Was a
member of the Federal Council of 1889 and elected to
the first Senate of the Commonwealth (1901-3), at the
end of his term returned to State politics. In 1905 en-
tered the State Legislative Council. Of that body he was
a member until his death, at Adelaide, 1915. (K.C.M.G.
1887).

216 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

SIR JAMES READING FAIRFAX (1834-1919)

Born in 1834 at Leamington, Warwickshire, the
second son of John Fairfax. Educated at private schools
at Parramatta and Sydney. Engaged in newspaper work
early in life and continued so till his death. Became head
of John Fairfax and Sons upon the death of his father
in 1 877. Knighted in 1898. Was at various times on the
Directorates of the Banks of New South Wales, Commer-
cial Banking Company of Sydney, A.M. P. Society, the
Perpetual Trustee Company (of which he was one of the
founders), and of Burns, Philp Ltd. President of the
National Art Gallery of New South Wales. President of
the Sydney Y.M.C.A. One of the founders of Sydney
Boys' Brigade and of the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital.
Trustee of the Royal Naval House and the National Ship-
wreck Relief and Humane Society. President of the
Royal Sydney Golf Club and Commodore of the Royal
Sydney Yacht Squadron. Died at Ginahgulla, Sydney,
March 28th, 1919.

JOHN FAIRFAX (1804-1877)

Born at Warwick, England, in 1 8 04. Arrived Aus-
tralia in 1838 and came to Sydney. In 1839 he was ap-
pointed Librarian to the Sydney Subscription Library
(afterwards the Public Library). He became attached to
the "Sydney Herald." He proved so valuable that the
management drifted into his hands. In 1 841 John Fair-
fax and Charles Kemp took over the "Herald," just es-
tablished as a daily. In 1842 the name of the paper was
changed to the "Sydney Morning Herald." In 1853
John, Fairfax became sole proprietor. He took a promi-
nent part in establishing the Australian Mutual Provident
Society. In 1871 he was appointed to the Council of
Education, In 1874 he was appointed to the Legislative
Council and died in 1877.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 217

ALFRED FELTON (1831-1904)

Born at Maldon, England, 1831. Came to Victoria,
attracted by the news of the gold discoveries and arrived
Melbourne 1853. Opened business as a Wholesale Drug-
gist and General Merchant. In 1866 he joined F. S.
Grimwade in founding the firm of Felton, Grimwade
& Co., and in later years acquired large pastoral pro-
perty. He employed his considerable wealth mainly on
charitable and artistic objects and when he died in 1904
left an estate of about 400,000 to be applied to the above
objects in equal proportions.

BARON (JOHN) FORREST (1847-1918)

Born at Bunbury, Western Australia, 1847. Edu-
cated at The Bishop's School, Perth. Entered the Survey
Department at the age of eighteen and in 1 869 was given
charge of an expedition into the interior of Western Aus-
tralia, to search for the missing explorer, Leichhardt. In
1 870 he led an expedition along the Bight to Adelaide and
in 1874 traversed, the Colony from Champion Bay to the
overland telegraph line between Adelaide and Port Dar-
win, about 2700 miles. Was given the gold medal of the
Royal Geographical Society of London as well as the title
of Chevalier of the Order of the Crown of Italy and the
Honorary Fellowship of the St. Petersburg, Vienna, and
Italian Geographical Societies. Received the thanks of
the Colonial Government and a grant of 5000 acres from
the Imperial Authorities.

In 1876 was appointed Deputy-Surveyor-General.
In 1 878-79 he was Acting Commissioner of Crown Lands
and Acting Surveyor General. In 1880-81, Acting Comp-
troller of Government Expenditure. From 1 8 83 to 1 890
he was Commissioner of Crown Lands and Surveyor-
General with a seat in the Executive and Legislative
Councils. With Responsible Government he became first

2i8 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Premier and Colonial Treasurer and held the office for
nearly eleven years, resigning to undertake wider duties
in the first Federal Parliament. During his term of office,
were undertaken the important works of Fremantle Har-
bour, the Goldfields Water Scheme, the development of
the railway system to the goldfields and a wide and liberal
land legislation.

Was a member of both Federal Conventions and also
represented his Colony in the Federal Councils of 1893-
5-7-9, being President in 1897. In 1901 was elected for
Swan to the Federal House of Representatives and re-
tained that seat until his death. In the Federal Parlia-
ments he held the offices of, Postmaster General (1901)5
Minister for Defence (190 1-3) 5 Minister for Home
Affairs (1903-4) 5 Treasurer (1905-7) 5 Acting Prime
Minister (1907); Treasurer (1909-10 and 1913-14)}
Treasurer ( 1 9 1 7 ) , but retired in 1 9 1 8 . In February 1918
a peerage was conferred on him. He died at sea in 1918
and his body was brought to Western Australia.

SIR JOHN RUSSELL FRENCH (1847-1921)

Born in India in 1847 and brought to New South
Wales in 1858. He entered the service of the Bank of
New South Wales in 1863 and passed through all grades
of the service, becoming Inspector in 1872, Chief Inspec-
tor in 1891 and General Manager in 1894. Joined with
Sir T. A. Dibbs in a campaign to obtain uniform banking
legislation throughout Australia. Holding aloof from
politics he became the adviser of State and Federal Trea-
surers and made his Bank one of the most influential in
Australia. He was associated with many welfare move-
ments and was one of the original Trustees of the Walter
and Eliza Hall Trust, he also acted as Advisor in financial
matters associated with the Church. Died in Sydney
192L (K.B.E. 1918).

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 219

SIR PHILIP OAKLEY FYSH (1835-1919)

Born at Highbury, North London, 1835. Arrived
Tasmania 1859, as Manager of a Branch o a London
mercantile firm. In 1865 he strongly advocated the rail-
way between Launceston and Hobart. He sat in the
Council as Member for Hobart (1866-69) and Bucking-
ham (1870-73, 1884-94)^ and in the Assembly as mem-
ber for East Hobart (1873-78 and North Hobart
(1894-98). Was treasurer in the Kennerley Ministry
(1873-75), Premier, without office (1877-78) Premier
and Chief Secretary (1887-92), Treasurer (1894-98).
From 1875 to 1876 and in 1878 he was Minister without
office in the Cabinets of the time. He represented Tas-
mania at the Federal Convention of 1891 and 1897-98
and became a member of the Finance Committee. Was
Agent-General 1898-1901. Returning to Tasmania was
elected to the Federal House of Representatives and in
1903 and 1906 for Denison. From 1901 to 1903 was
Honorary Minister then Postmaster General. He retired
from politics in 1910 and died at Hobart in 1919.
(K.CM.G. 1896).

RICHARD GOLDSBROUGH (1821-1886)

Born at Shipley, in Yorkshire, England, in 1821 and
apprenticed to a wool-stapling firm in Bradford. Started
on a small scale as a wool-merchant in 1842. Arrived
Adelaide 1847 and then moved to Melbourne. Com-
menced business in the latter city in 1848. In 1853 he
established a Stock and Station business with Messrs. Row
& Kirk and bought stations in the Riverina. Deciding
in 1857 to confine his energies to wool-broking he de-
veloped that business, eventually amalgamating, in 1881,
with another firm and founding the house of R. Golds-
brough & Co., with a capital of three millions. He died
in 1886. After his death his Company absorbed the

220 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

famous firm of Mort & Co. and eventually other similar
businesses under the name of Goldsbrough Mort & Co.,
which is one of the greatest wool businesses in Australia.

JOHN GOULD (1804-1881)

Born at Lyme Regis, in Dorset, England, 1804.
From early years he was interested in wild bird life and
taxidermy and at fourteen was working under his father,
who was foreman gardener at Windsor Castle.

In 1827 he was appointed taxidermist to the Zoo-
logical Society of London and three years later re-
ceiving from the Himalayas a collection of bird-
skins produced his first volume of bird illustrations,
"The Century of Himalayan Birds." In 1837 he pub-
lished a "Synopsis of the Birds of Australia" and in 1838
himself went to Australia spending two years in collect
ing and the instruction of subordinate collectors. On
his return to England in 1 840 he commenced the publi-
cation of his great work on Australian birds in seven vol-
umes containing 601 plates. In 1844 he brought out
a "Study of the Macropodidae" (Kangaroos) and between
1845 and 1863 produced three volumes on "The Mam-
mals of Australia," In 1865 he issued a "Handbook to
the Birds of Australia" and between 1875 and 1880
"The Birds of New Guinea and the Adjacent Papuan
Islands." In 1 843 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society and died in London 1881.

SIR SAMUEL WALKER GRIFFITH (1845-1920)

Born at Myrthyr Tydvil, in Wales, 1 845, and brought
by his parents to New South Wales in 1854. He was
educated at the University of Sydney (B.A. 1863, M.A.
1870) and won the Mort Travelling Fellowship. Re-
turning to Brisbane he was articled to Arthur Macalister

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 221

and in 1867 was called to the bar of Queensland (Q.C.
1876). In 1871 he entered the Queensland Legisla-
tive Assembly as Member for East Moreton and in 1874
became Attorney-General. During the next five years
he was continually in office as Attorney-General and Sec-
retary for Public Instruction (1876-79) and during 1878
also as Secretary for Public Works 5 Premier 1883-88.
From 1890-93 he was nominally head of a coalition
Government and in the latter year retired from politics
to become Chief Justice of the Colony.

He was one of the Queensland Representatives at
the Colonial Conference of 1887 and at the Intercolonial
Conference of 1883 had carried a proposal for the setting
up of a Federal Australasian Council, which in 1885 was
embodied in an Imperial Act. He represented Queens-
land at the preliminary Federal Conference of 1890 and
at the Convention of 1 89 1 of which he was Vice-President.
He was Chairman of the Sub-Committee which drafted
the Convention's Bill and the Bill was, in the main his
personal work. In 1903, when the High Court of Aus-
tralia was established Griffith was offered the Chief Jus-
ticeship. In 1904 he was made a member of the Senate
of the University of Sydney. In 1919 he resigned the
Chief Justiceship of Australia and died in 1920 at Bris-
bane. (K.C.M.G. 1886; G.C.M.G. 1895; P.C. 1901).

LAWRENCE HARGRAVE (1850-1915)

Born in England in 1850 and when his father
migrated to Australia was left in England to continue his
education. Arrived Australia in 1866, was apprenticed
to an engineering firm and afterwards was assistant at the
Sydney Observatory, where he first became interested in
human flight. In 1884-92 he experimented with mono-
plane models, first with flapping wings and later with
screws. With these models, flights of 300 to 400 feet

222 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

were repeatedly made in a horizontal course, but they
could not rise from the ground or steer to right or left.
Prominent among his discoveries at this time was the
rotary aeroplane engine made in 1889. It weighed only
7% ounces and made 456 revolutions per minute. In 1892
he began to experiment with curved surfaces. The in-
creased lift obtained with these opened up a new and
larger field for research and resulted in the production of
cellular kites. In 1894, by means of four kites weigh-
ing 34 Ib. 13 oz. he succeeded in raising a weight of
208 Ib. a distance of 16ft. from the ground in a 21-
miles-per-hour wind. He died at Sydney in 1915.

JAMES HARRISON (1815-1893)

Born at Renton, in Dumbartonshire, Scotland, in
1815, and apprenticed to a printer at Glasgow. In 1837
was sent out to Sydney in charge of some printing material
to be used in the production of the "Literary News" to
which magazine he contributed while working on the
"Monitor" and the "Sydney Herald." In 1839 he
moved to Melbourne and joined Fawkner on the "Port
Phillip Patriot" and then went to Geelong to edit the
"Advertiser." In 1842 Harrison bought Fawkner out
and in 1851 began to publish the "Australian" a literary
quarterly. He represented Geelong in the Victorian
Legislature from 1856 to 1861.

About 1852 he began to study the formation of ice
by the evaporation of ether and in 1856 and 1857
patented his process. At Rodey Point on the Barwon
he built the first ice factory in Australia, but finding that
ice-making machinery, on a commercial scale, was unob-
tainable in Melbourne or Sydney he went to London to
exploit his invention. He returned to Victoria in 1859
with a large machine and installed it in a factory in Frank-
lin Street, Melbourne, producing with it up to 10 tons of

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 223

ice a day. In 1861 Harrison was made bankrupt and
the purchasers of the "Advertiser" offered him the post
of editor. In 1865 he abandoned the "Advertiser" and
started the "Geelong Register." Selling this newspaper
he returned to Melbourne where he became sub-editor of
the "Age." In 1873 he produced a new process for
freezing carcasses for export. For this he was awarded
a gold medal at the Melbourne Exhibition of 1873 and
on proving that the cost of freezing and freightage would
not exceed 7/ per ton was given 2500 to take 25 tons
of frozen beef to London. The process did not succeed
for beef, while successful for mutton. In 1892 he re-
turned to Geelong and settled down at Point Henry and
resumed intermittently his connection with the "Age." He
died in 1893.

SIR JOHN HAY (1816-1892)

Born at Little Ythsie, in Aberdeenshire, and educated
at the University at Aberdeen (M.A. 1834), Studied for
the Scottish bar in Edinburgh, but in 1838 migrated to
New South Wales and took up land for pastoral purposes
on the Upper Murray. In 1856 he was elected, unop-
posed, for the Murrumbidgee constituency Secretary for
Lands and Works (1856-57). Represented successively,
Murray (1856-64) and Central Cumberland (1864-67).
Chosen speaker 1 862 but resigned for reasons of health in
1865. In 1867 he was nominated to the Council and in
1873 became its President, a position he held until his
death in 1892. (K.CM.G. 1878.)

SIR JOSEPH GEORGE LONG INNES (1834-1896)

Eldest son of the late Captain Joseph Long Innes.
Educated at Mr. George Cape's school and later at King's
School, Parramatta. He entered the Survey Office 1851,

224 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

and in same year transferred to Department of Justice
and made clerk to Mr Gold Commissioner Zouch at
Sofala on the Turon. From 1854 to 1856 was associate
to Sir Alfred Stephen, Chief Justice of N.'S. Wales. In
1 856 went to England to study law, called to the English
Bar in 1859. Returning to Sydney he was admitted to
the N.S. Wales Bar on 28th February, 1863. In 1865
accepted a District Court Judgeship in Queensland, re-
signed in 1869 and resumed practice at the N.S.W. bar.
In 1872 entered N.S. Wales Legislative Assembly as
member for Mudgee. Joined Parkes's first ministry as
Solicitor General, appointed to the Legislative Council,
and appointed Attorney General. In 1874 accompanied
Sir Hercules Robinson to Fiji to negotiate the cession of
these Islands to Great Britain and was in January, 1875,
knighted for his services in that connection and was
offered, but refused, the Chief Justiceship of the new
Colony. In 1875 appointed Chairman of Committees of
the Legislative Council, but resigned in 1880 to become
Minister of Justice in Sir Henry Parkes's third ministry.
1881, was appointed a Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court
of N.S. Wales, and died on 28th October 1896, while still
in office as Senior Puisne Judge. Was a Trustee of the
National Art Gallery.

ISAAC ALFRED ISAACS

Born in Melbourne, 1855, and educated at the
Beechworth Grammar School and at the University of
Melbourne (LL.M. 1880). Called to the Victorian bar
in 1880 (Q.C. 1899). In 1892 he was returned to the
Legislative Assembly for the Bogong electorate and Soli-
citor-General (1893-94) and Attorney-General (1894-
99 and 1900-1)- Leaving State for Federal politics he
was elected by Indi (Victoria) to the House of Represent-
atives and became Attorney-General in 1905-6. In the
latter year he was elevated to the High Court Bench.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 225

HENRY KENDALL (1841-1882)

Born at Kirmington, near Milton, New South Wales
in 184L He spent two years (1855-57) as a cabin boy
on board his uncle's brig in the Pacific. Returning to
Sydney in 1857 he began to write verse his first being
published in 1859 in "The Australian Home Companion"
and later in "The Empire" and "The Sydney Morning
Herald." In 1862 he published "Poems and Songs"
and in 1863 he was given a position in the Surveyor-
General's office and in 1866 he was transferred to the
Premier's office.

In 1868 he won a prize for the best Australian verse
and encouraged by this success decided to earn his living
as a writer, resigning his official position and moving to
Melbourne. In this city he published his second volume,
"Leaves from Australian Forests." He returned to
Sydney in 1871 and in 1873 went to Camden Haven.
During his next seven years he produced some of his best
poems among which are "Orara," "Hy-Brasil," "Cooran-
bean," "After Many Years." He won a prize offered
by the "Sydney Morning Herald" on the Sydney Inter-
national Exhibition and in 1880 published "Songs from
the Mountains." In 1881 he was made Inspector of
State Forests. He died at Redfern in 1882.

SIR KELSO KING, K.B.

Sir Kelso King started as a jackeroo on a Queens-
land Station when between 15 and 16 years of age,
and after spending twelve months on the land, he joined
first, the Bank of N.S.W., and, later, the Commercial
Banking Co. of Sydney, with which he remained for
about six years. He was appointed Secretary to the
Q

226 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Mercantile Mutual on the 19th December, 1877, just
before his twenty-fourth birthday. Since that time he
has been the Chief Executive Officer of the Company,
of which he is now Managing Director.

He also holds the position of Managing Director
Australian General Insurance Co.

As a public spirited citizen he has shown a tireless
energy that has been the wonder of all who knew
the great responsibilities he carries in the commercial
world. Among his many activities those that will per-
haps be of the most lasting benefit to the nation, on ac-
count of the splendid training in citizenship and develop-
ment which they give to the character and physique of
the youth of to-day, are the following:

The Boy Scouts' Association.

The Royal Naval House.

The Navy League.

The Royal Life-Saving Society.

The King's School Council.

Trinity Grammar School.

The Walter and Eliza Hall Trust.

The latter includes in its work assistance to many
splendid institutions, schools, colleges, and universities,
essential to the development of the minds and bodies
of the growing generations.

SIR GEORGE HANDLEY KNIBES

Born in Sydney, 1858, educated as a Surveyor. In
1877 joined the staff of the New South Wales Survey
Department and in 1889 was appointed to a lectureship
in Surveying and allied subjects at the University of Syd-
ney. In 1902 he was despatched by the N.S.W. Govern-
ment to the United Kingdom, Europe, Canada, and the

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 227

United States to report on all branches of education. On
his return (1905-6) he was appointed Director of Techni-
cal Education and was also Acting-Director of Physics at
the University. In 1906 he became Commonwealth
Statistician and adviser to the Federal Government on
taxation and devised the mathematical formulas which
control Australian land and income tax rates. In 1921
he became Director of the Commonwealth Institute of
Science and Industry, now the Commonwealth Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research. He retired in March
1926.

For nine years he was Honorary Secretary of the
Royal Society of N.S.W. and President in 1898-99. He
presided over the Institution of Surveyors for four years
(1892-93 and 1900-1); over the Society for Child Study
for three years (1 903-5 )j and over the British Astro-
nomical Society's N.S.W. Branch for two years ( 1897-98).
He represented the Australian Government at five Inter-
national Congresses and at two Imperial Conferences and
was a member of Royal Commissions on Insurance (1909-
10) and taxation of Crown leaseholds (1918-19). Dur-
ing the war he was a member of a Royal Commission on
Trade and Industry and a Consulting Member of a
Committee on Munitions and carried out a war-census of
persons fit for war service and another on the wealth of
the Australian people.

He is a member of the Institute International de
Statistique, an Honorary Member of the Societe de Statis-
tique de Paris and of the American Statistical Association,
an Honorary Fellow of the Statistical Society, a Fellow
of the Royal Astronomical Society and a Director of the
Colonial Mutual Life Assurance Society. (C.M.G. 1911 j
Kt. 1923.)

22$ FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

SIR ADRIAN KNOX

Born in Sydney, N.S.W., 1 863, and educated at Har-
row and at the University of Cambridge (LL.B. 1885).
Called to the bar of the Inner Temple on May 19th,
1886. Represented Woollahra in the New South Wales
Legislature from 1894 to 1898. In 1906-15, and again
in 1916-19, he was Chairman of the Australian Jockey
Club and in 1915-16 he visited Europe as Commissioner
for the Australian Red Cross Association. In October
1919 he was made Chief Justice of the High Court of
Australia. In 1920 he was made a member of the Judi-
cial Committee of the Privy Council and sat on a Com-
mission that investigated the constitutional questions in
connection with the boundary between Ulster and the
Irish Free State. He was also one of the original Trus-
tees of the Walter and Eliza Hall Trust, which he held
until 1919. (P.C. 19205 K.C.M.G. 1921).

MR EDWARD KNOX (1819-1901)

Born to British parents domiciled at Elsinor in Den-
mark. Educated at a leading Danish School, Soro, and
at the University of Lubeck, one of the Hansiatic Free
Towns. Was for a short time in a London office and left
for Australia in 1 839, where after ventures in farming
,and commerce he became Official Assignee. 1 843 manager
of a small sugar refining company. 1 844 joined Board of
Commercial Banking Company of Sydney. 1847 Man-
ager of Bank. 1854 resigned managership of Bank to
devote all his time to sugar enterprise which was then
being amalgamated into the Colonial Sugar Refining Co.
1 857 went to England on behalf of the Victoria Sugar Co.,
<of which he was Managing Director. On his return he
was associated with Mr. Graf ton Ross in the management
of the C.S.R. Co. In 1887 he arranged the amalgama-
tion of the Sydney Company with others in Victoria and

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 229*

New Zealand. While on holiday in Europe the Banking
crisis occurred and he returned to Sydney March 1893.
He had just been made Chairman of Directors of the
Commercial Bank. He retained both Chairmanships of
the Sugar and Banking Companies, until his death in
1901. He was a member of the N.S.W. Legislative Coun-
cil from May 1 856 to November 1 857 and from Decem-
ber 1881 to September 1894. Closely associated with
management of Prince Alfred Hospital and Chairman of
Board of Directors at time of his death. He was con-
nected with the control of the Church of England for
many years especially with the Finance Committee of the
Synod. For a long time he was Churchwarden in his own
Parish and for more than thirty years a member of St.
Andrew's Cathedral Chapter. (Kt. Bach. 1 897).

REVEREND JOHN DUNMORE LANG (1799-
1878)

Born at Greenock, in Scotland, in 1799. Entered
the University of Glasgow at the age of twelve (M.A.
1820, D.D. 1825), received his licence to preach on June
1st, 1820. Arrived in Sydney 1823. On July 1st, 1824,
laid the foundation-stone of Scot's Church on Church
Hill. Later visited England to secure funds for the
establishment of a Presbyterian College in Sydney, which
was completed in 1835.

In 1835 he organised a Presbytery in Tasmania and
in 1836 went to Scotland to secure preachers. On Sep-
tember 3rd, 1837, he returned to Sydney accompanied by
eight ministers and four probationers.

In 1854 he was returned to the Legislative Council
as member for Stanley (Moreton Bay) and was prominent
in the agitation for the separation from New South Wales.
He was also a firm advocate of Federation and an Aus-

230 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

traiia independent of Great Britain. He was unable to
take his seat in the Council owing to the prohibition
against the clergy being members of Parliament, but on
this disability being removed in 1859 he took his seat
and retained it until he retired from politics in 1 869. He
wrote several books. In 1872 he was made Moderator
of the General Assembly of the Church in New South
Wales. He died in 1878.

HENRY ARCHIBALD LAW SON (1867-1922)

Born at Weddin Mountain diggings, near Grenfell,
N.S.W., 1867. Moved to Sydney in 1883 where he was
a house and coach painter. In 1887 he was working in
Melbourne and in 1889-90 at Albany, in W.A. During
this period he was engaged in journalism helping hi?
mother with her "Republican" and "Dawn." In October
1887 the "Bulletin" published his "Song of the Republic"
and thereafter took most of his verses and stories. In
1891 he was on the Brisbane "Boomerang." In 1892
he was commissioned by the "Bulletin" to tramp from
Bourke to Hungerford, working on the stations en route.

In 1893 he edited the "Worker" and then went to
New Zealand. On his return he was given a post in the
office of the New South Wales Government Statistician.
In 1 894 his first book "Short Stories in Prose and Verse"
was published from the "Dawn" office. Thereafter he
produced prolifically. He died in 1922.

SIR CHARLES LILLEY (1830-1897)

Born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, 1830, edu-
cated at University College, London. Was articled to
a London Solicitor and emigrated to Queensland in 1856.
While practising his profession in that Colony he edited
the "Moreton Bay Courier." When Queensland became

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 231

a separate Colony he was elected to the first Assembly
for Fortitude Valley, a suburb of Brisbane, and remained
member for that constituency until he retired from politics
in 1874 In 1865 he was Attorney-General and with
the exception of three weeks retained it until 1867. He
was Premier in 1868-70. In 1874 he was made a tem-
porary judge of the Supreme Court and in 1879 became
Chief Justice of the Colony. In 1 893 he resigned from the
bench and died in 1897.

He was a great educationalist and had a large part
in the founding of the Brisbane Grammar School and
was for many years Chairman of Trustees of that school.
In 1874 he was Chairman of a Royal Commission on
Education. In 1891 he was Chairman of a Royal Com-
mission on the establishment of a Queensland University.
He was also, while Attorney-General, a member of the
Royal Commission which in 1866-67 revised the Statute
Laws of the Colony. (Kt Bach. 1881.)

GEORGE FAIRFOWL MAC ARTHUR (1825-1890)

Born at Subiaco, near Parramatta, N.S.W., 1825,
and educated at King's School, Parramatta, and afterwards
coached by Dr. Woolls, and studied for Anglican orders.
Ordained Deacon 1 848 and Priest 1 849. Appointed to
St. Mark's Church, Darling Point, Sydney, 1852, and
while there opened St. Mark's Collegiate School. In
1858 he resigned the parish and moved his school to Mac-
quarie Fields, about 27 miles south-west of Sydney. He
modelled the school on the lines of the great English
Public Schools, and established the first Cadet Corps in
Australia. In 1868 he was invited to become head of
The King's School, which had been closed since 1864.
He accepted the post and successfully rebuilt the school.
In June 1886 he resigned and lived in retirement until
his death in 1890.

232 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

SIR WILLIAM MAC ARTHUR (1800-1882)

Born at Parramatta, N.S.W., in 1800. Educated
at Grove Hall Academy, Bow, England. In 1817 he
returned to Australia and devoted himself to farming and
in 1839 brought out six vine-dressers to improve the
Camden vineyards. In 1841 he gained medals in Lon-
don for exhibits of wine and brandy and in 1844 pub-
lished a book "On the Culture of the Vine, Fermentation,
and the Management of Wine of the Cellar." He sat
in the N.S.W. Legislative Council from 1849 to 1855
when he was made Commissioner for the Paris Exhibi-
tion and was decorated with the Legion of Honour by the
French Emperor. He returned to Australia in 1857
and resumed his- work at Camden Park. He repeated his
success of Paris at the London Exhibition of 1862, and
after his return to the Colony in 1864 was nominated to
the Legislative Council. His seat lapsed in his absence
in August 1882. Died in 1882 (Kt. Bach. 1856).

SIR MUNGO WILLIAM MacCALLUM

Born at Glasgow, Scotland, in 1854 and educated
at the Glasgow High School and the University of Glas-
gow (B.A. 1875; M.A. 1877; LL.D. 1907). Won the
Luke Fellowship at his University and afterwards
studied at Berlin and Leipzig. Appointed Professor of
English Literature and History in the University of
Wales in 1879 and in 1887 became Challis Professor of
Modern Literature in the University of Sydney, resign-
ing in 1920. He was nominated Professor Emeritus and
the chair having been divided into four when he left
it Honorary Professor of English Literature. In 1898-
1914 and 1916-19, he was Dean of the Faculty of Arts
and an ex-officio Member of the Senate. Since 1919 he
has been elected a Member of that body. Vice-Chancel-
lor in 1924 (the first time the title was applied to the

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 233

Chief Administrative Officer of the University). In
1906-12 he was Chairman of Trustees of the Public
Library of New South Wales and a member of the
Commonwealth Literary Pensions Board. In 1925 the
University of Oxford made him an honorary D.Litt,
(K.C.M.G. 1926).

SIR SAMUEL McCAUGHEY (1835-1919)

Born at Tullynuey, near Ballymena, Ireland, 1835.
Migrated to Australia in 1 856. After a short experience
on his uncle's Kewell Station he was made manager. In
I860, he, with two partners, bought Coonong Station
and there built up a remarkable stud flock of sheep with a
foundation of a draft of Widgiewa ewes and a draft of
rams from Mona Vale, in Tasmania. In 1883 he bought
ten Calif ornian rams and some American ewes in Sydney
and shortly afterwards visited America and brought back
524 stud sheep selected from the best strains in Ver-
mont. In 1880 he bought Toorale and Dunlop Stations
on the Darling River and in 1881 invested largely in
Queensland Stations. At one time he shore a million
sheep a year.

In 1 899 he bought North Yanco Station on the Mur-
rumbidgee and from a dam and pumping station a few
miles above constructed many miles of channel to irrigate
40,000 acres. In 1911-12 he sold Toorale and Dunlop
Stations as well as his Queensland Stations, and in 1919
he sold Coonong to his nephew, Roy McCaughey. From
1899 to 1919 he was a member of the N.S.W. Legisla-
tive Council. Died in 1919, leaving many valuable be-
quests to educational and charitable institutions. (Kt.
Bach. 1905).

SIR FREDERICK McCOY (1823-1899)

Born in Dublin in 1823 and educated in that City
and at Cambridge. He was diverted from the practice

234 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

of medicine (for which he had been trained) by a com-
mission to arrange collections of specimens for the Geo-
logical Society of Ireland and the Royal Irish Academy.
Later he was engaged on palaeontological enquiries and in
1 846 was- invited to Cambridge to arrange a collection in
the Woodwardian Museum. During this engagement he
was appointed (in 1850) to the Chair of Mineralogy
and Geology at Queen's College, Belfast, and carried on
the two tasks until, in 1854, his Cambridge work was
completed. In 1854 he was made Professor of Natural
Science at the Melbourne University and also controlled
the study of geology, zoology, palaeontology, botany,
mineralogy, chemistry, and comparative anatomy. Of
these subjects he retained four for himself and as soon
as possible handed on the remaining subjects to other
teachers. His most important contribution to the Col-
ony was the establishment, and building up, of the Na-
tional Museum. In 1886 the University of Cambridge
made him a D.Sc.j the Geological Society of London
awarded him the Murchison Medal (1879) ; the Royal
Society made him a Fellow (1880) 5 and he received
other honours from Societies in Italy and Austria. Died
in Melbourne, 1899. (C.M.G. 18865 K.C.M.G. 1891).

SIR WILLIAM MacGREGOR (1846-1919)

Born at Towie, Aberdeenshire, in 1846. Educated
at the Strathdon Manse. In 1867 entered King's College,
Aberdeen. Studied medicine at Glasgow and at Aber-
deen (M.B. and CM. 1872 5 Watson Gold Medal? L.R.
C.P. Edin. 1872; M.D. 1874; Hon. D.Sc. Camb.j Hon.
D.Sc. Queensland). Also studied at Berlin, Florence,
and Paris. Migrate^ to the Seychelles where, in 1873,
he was Assistant Medical Officer. In 1 874 was appointed
surgeon of the Port Louis Civil Hospital, in the Mauri-
tius. From 1875-88 he was Chief Medical Officer in

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 235

Fiji, at times acting as Receiver-General, Commissioner
for Lands, Colonial Secretary and Auditor and also as
High Commissioner and Consul-General of the Western
Pacific. In 1 876 he suppressed a disturbance in the moun-
tains of Viti Levu, and in 1877 was appointed a member
of the Native Regulation Board. In 1886, as Colonial
Secretary to the Fiji Commission, he sat on the first
Federal Council of Australasia ; and in 1888 he was ap-
pointed Administrator of British New Guinea (Lieu-
tenant-Governor 1895). In 1899 he was made Gover-
nor of Lagos. In 1904 he was transferred to Newfound-
land.

In 1909 he became Governor of Queensland, retiring
in 1914. In 1911 he was elected first Chancellor of the
University of Queensland, which was established mainly
through his efforts. He was awarded the Founder's
Medal of the Royal Geographical Society for his explor-
ations in the interior of New Guinea, and the Mary
Kingsley Gold Medal for combating malarial fever in
Lagos. He died at Aberdeen in 1919. (C.M.G. 1881}
K.CM.G. 1889; CB. 1897; G.C.M.G. 1907; P.C.
1914.)

HUGH VICTOR McKAY (1865-1926)

Born at Raywood, Victoria, 1865, and educated at
Drummarton State School. He became a farmer and
in 1884 invented a harvesting machine which was an im-
provement on previous machines. In 1888 he built a
factory at Ballarat and the merits of his machine became
acknowledged both at home and abroad. In 1906 he
transferred his plant from Ballarat to Sunshine, near Mel-
bourne. There he transformed a wilderness into a model
township of more than 4000 inhabitants around a factory
covering 35 acres. He employed over 2000 hands. His
wages bill exceeded 600,000 per annum; most of the
material used in the factory is of Australian production.

236 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

During the war he was a member of the Board of
Business Administration associated with the Defence De-
partment and the Sunshine Works were used for the
manufacture of munitions. He died at Rupertswood,
Victoria, 1926. (C.B.E. 1918.)

SIR BERTRAM MACKENNAL

Born in Melbourne 1863. Studied sculpture under
his father and at the school attached to the Melbourne
Gallery. Left for London 1882, studied at the Art
School of the Royal Academy. In 1885 he went to Paris
and in 1886 returned to England to take charge of the
Art Department of some Potteries at Coalport, in Shrop-
shire. In 1887 he was commissioned to design and carve
the panels on the front facade of the Victorian Houses
of Parliament. In 1891 he returned to Paris and settled
there. In 1893 he exhibited at the Salon the original
model of the "Circe" now in the Melbourne Gallery and
was awarded a "Mention Honorable." In 1894 he
crossed to London and in 1901 and 1926 revisited Aus-
tralia.

Since 1894 he has exhibited regularly at the Aca-
demy and was made an Associate in 1909 the first Aus-
tralian to be admitted and a full member in 1922.
(M.V.O. 1912 5 K.C.V.O. 1921).

JOHN McKINLAY (1819-1872)

Born at Sandbank, on the Clyde, in 1819, and came
to New South Wales in 1 836 to join his uncle on a sheep-
station. Ten years later he settled at Ki, on the Murray,
South Australia. He began to explore the unknown coun-
try lying between the Darling and Lake Torrens, took
up several runs on that area. In 1861 he was chosen by
the Government to lead the search for Burke and Wills.
On his return the South Australian Government made

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 237

him a grant of 1000 and in 1863 the Royal Geographi-
cal Society of England presented him with a gold watch.
In 1865 he was sent to investigate the area between the
Adelaide, Liverpool and Roper rivers in the hope of
finding a site for the Northern Territory Capital. On
his return south he settled on his farm near Gawler. Died
in 1872.

SIR HENRY NORM AND MacLAURIN (1835-
1914)

Born at Kilconquhar, Fifeshire, Scotland, 1835.
Educated at the Universities of St. Andrews and Edin-
burgh (MIX 1857). Joined the Navy in 1858 as As-
sistant Surgeon, served at Athens during the revolution
of 1862. Later was Medical Officer at Greenwich Hos
pital. Retiring from the Navy in 1871 he migrated to
New South Wales, settled at Sydney. In 1883 he was
elected a Fellow of the University Senate 5 in 1885 ap-
pointed Chairman of the Board of Health and of the Im-
migration Board} in 1889 was nominated to the Legisla-
tive Council. In 1893-94 represented the Dibbs Ministry
in that House. A Director of the Bank of New South
Wales and a Trustee of St. Andrews College, within the
University, and of the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital.
Vice-Chancellor of the University in 1887-89 and in
1895-96 and Chancellor from 1896 until his death. Died
in 1914. (Kt. Bach. 1902),

SIR WILLIAM JOHN MACLEAY (1820-1891)

Born at Wick, Caithness-shire, Scotland, 1 820. Edu-
cated at the University of Edinburgh. Was trained for
the medical profession but was induced by his uncle to
come to Australia, arriving in 1839. He took up sheep
farming near Goulburn and later on the Murrumbidgee.

238 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

In 1855 was elected to the Legislative Council by the dis-
tricts of Lachlan and Lower Darling, and under the new
constitution from 1856 to 1859. In 1859 was elected
member for Murrumbidgee and held the seat until 1874
when he resigned to lead an expedition to New Guinea.
On his return in 1877 was nominated to the Legislative
Council and remained a member until his death.

In 1863 he was Chairman of a Committee of the
Assembly on the defence of Port Jackson. In 1880 he
was Chairman of a Commission to inquire into Australian
fisheries, which resulted in the Act of 1881, still in force.
In 1862 he founded the Entomological Society of New
South Wales, which lapsed in 1873, but the following
year was established its more comprehensive successor,
the Linnean Society of New South Wales, carried on
mainly through his generosity. For many years he was
a Trustee of the Australian Museum (Kt. Bach. 1889).

SIR JOHN MADDEN (1844-1918)

Born at Cork, Ireland, 1 844. Educated in England
and France and at the University of Melbourne (B.A.
1863 5 LL.B. 1865} LL.D. 1869). Came with his par-
ents to Victoria in 1857. In 1868 was admitted to the
Victorian bar. In 1874 was elected Member for West
Bourke. Minister for Justice 1875. In 1876 he was
elected for Sandridge (now Port Melbourne) and held
the seat until he retired from politics in 1883. In 1880
he was Minister for Justice. He was made Chief Jus-
tice in 1893 and in 1899 was formally appointed Lieut-
enant-Governor. In 1875-79 was Warden of the Senate
of the University of Melbourne, in 1889-97 Vice-Chan-
cellor and from 1907 to his death, Chancellor. During
a visit to England he received honorary degrees from the
Universities of Oxford and Aberdeen. Died at Mel-
bourne 1918. (Kt. Bach. 1893} K.C.M.G. 1899>
G.C.M.G. 1906).

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 239

SIR WILLIAM MONTAGU MANNING (1811-

1895)

Born at Alphington, Devon, 1811. Educated at
University College, London. Admitted to the English
bar in 1832. In 1837 he migrated to New South Wales.
In 1844 was Solicitor-General and held the post until
responsible Government in 1856, with an interval during
which he acted as judge. In 1851 he was appointed
to the Legislative Council and took a considerable part
in moulding the Constitution Bill of 1853. In 1856 was
elected to the Assembly, became Attorney-General, hold-
ing office till 1857, when he retired on account of ill-
health. Was appointed Attorney-General in 1859, but
retired. In 1861 he was nominated to the Council and
remained a member until 1876, being Attorney-General
1868-70. In 1 876 he was made a Judge of the Supreme
Court and Primary Judge in Equity. Retiring 1887 he
devoted the rest of his life to the University of Sydney
of which he was Chancellor in 1878 and died 1895
(Kt. Bach. 1858).

SIR WILLIAM PATRICK MANNING, Kt, (1846-
1915)

Born in 1 846 at Surry Hills, Sydney.

Business career was commenced as Clerk in the Syd-
ney Paper Company, and continued afterwards in the
firm of P. N. Russell & Co.

Subsequently became Chartered Accountant and re-
ceived appointment^ as Manager of the affairs of a num-
ber of large English investors in N.S.W. Was retained
as Auditor of several leading Corporations including the
Mercantile Mutual Insurance Company Limited (which
position he held from its incorporation in 1878, until his
death) and the Commercial Banking Company of Syd-
ney.

240 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Took a leading part in the reconstructions of vari-
ous Banks. Was a Director of the Australian Bank of
Commerce Ltd. Subsequently became Chairman and so
continued till just prior to his death.

Entered public life as Alderman for Bourke Ward
m the Sydney Municipal Council and was elected Mayor
of Sydney on four consecutive occasions.

Was elected to the Parliament of New South Wales
as Representative of South Sydney in the Legislative
Assembly.

For many years took a leading part in the manage-
ment of the Industrial Blind Institute of N.S.W. and
held the position of President of the Philharmonic So-
ciety.

CONRAD MARTENS (1801-1878)

Born in the parish of Crutched Friars, near the
Tower in London, England, and from his youth was de-
voted to art. He chose Copley Fielding, a fashionable
teacher of the period, for his master. In 1832 he left
England for South America and later on the Beagle
arriving at Monte Video, replaced Augustus Earle as
official topographer of the expedition. He left the
B 'eagle at Valparaiso in 1834 and went to Tahiti. 1835
left Tahiti for Sydney, and set up as a drawing master.
In 1844 he built for himself a cottage at St. Leonards on
the northern side of the harbour. Most of his income
was derived from painting or drawing big country houses
for their owners and from the sale of views of Sydney
Harbour including a notable hand-coloured lithograph
of Sydney from the North Shore. In 1 863, when too old
to continue painting he was made Assistant Parliamentary
Librarian. He died in 1878.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 241

SIR JAMES MARTIN (1820-1886)

Born at Midleton, Ireland, 1 820, and arrived New
South Wales in 1821. Educated at the Sydney Academy
and Sydney College, He joined the staff of the "Aus-
tralian." In 1838 he published a small book of essays.
In 1840 he was articled to G. R. Nichols and in 1845
was admitted a Solicitor. When the "Atlas" was estab-
lished in 1844 he contributed largely and later became
editor. In 1848 he was elected to the Legislative Coun-
cil for Cook and Westmoreland, but was unseated on
petition, not having the requisite property qualification.
In 1 849 he was returned unopposed and retained the seat
until the dissolution of the Council in 1856. Under re-
sponsible Government he became Attorney-General and
in 1857 was called to the bar, resigning his office the fol-
lowing year. In 1863 he became Premier and Attorney-
General, and again formed a ministry in 1866. In Octo-
ber 1868 he resigned, but from 1870-72 was again Pre-
mier and Attorney-General. In 1873 he was appointed
Chief Justice of New South Wales. From 1858 to 1878
he was a member of the Senate of the University of
Sydney. Died in 1886. (K.C.B. 1869).

SIR ARCHIBALD MICHIE (1813-1899)

Born at Winchester in 1813 and educated at Win-
chester School. Studied law and was called to the bar
at the Middle Temple 1838. Migrated the next year
to Sydney and was admitted to the local bar, combining
the practice of the law with journalism. In 1848 he
was elected first Chairman of the Australian Mutual Pro-
vident Society. Settled at Melbourne when he became
a nominee member of the Council. Dropped politics
to own the "Herald" and became famous through his suc-
cessful defence of the Eureka rioters in 1855. He re-
presented Melbourne in the Legislative Council (1856-

242 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

59)5 StKilda (1859-61); Polwarth (1863-66); StKilda
(1866-68); and South Gippsland (1868-71); and sat in
the Council during 1871-72. Was Attorney-General in
1857-58; Minister for Justice, 1863-66; Attorney-
General, 1870-71; and in 1873 was appointed Agent-
General, which post he held until 1 879 when he returned
to Melbourne and retired from politics. He died in 1899
(K.C.M.G. 1878).

SIR DENISON SAMUEL KING MILLER (1860-

1923)

Born near Wollongong, N.S.W., 1860, and educated
at Deniliquin Public School. In 1876 he entered the
employ of the Bank of New South Wales and during 36
years 7 service rose to be Chief Metropolitan Inspector.
In 1912 the Commonwealth Government appointed him
Governor of the newly established Commonwealth Bank
and he proved himself one of the leading financial men of
the country. Died in 1923. (K.C.M.G. 1920).

DAVID SCOTT MITCHELL (1836-1907)

Born in Sydney, 1836. Was admitted to Sydney
University (B.A. 1855; M.A. 1859). Called to the bar
in 1858, he never practised. His interests were in liter-
ature and he wrote occasional verses. He refused to enter
politics, although offered the Attorney-Generalship. In
1871 he begaa to gather what is now the greatest collec-
tion of Australiana in the world.

In 1898 he communicated to the Trustees of the
Public Library his intention to bequeath his collection to
them, together with an endowment, provided they were
constituted a corporate body, stipulating that the Gov-
ernment should provide suitable accommodation and
preserve his collection intact in a separate wing or set of

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 243

rooms to be known as the "Mitchell Library" and make
it freely available to students on conditions similar to
those obtaining at the British Museum. In the follow-
ing year, on the trustees being formed a Corporate Body,
he handed over 10,000 volumes and 50 pictures.

In 1906 the foundation-stone of the "Mitchell
Library" was laid and he set aside 70,000 for the en-
dowment of the Library. The building was still under
construction when he died in 1907. After his death some
61,000 volumes, manuscripts, maps, views, portraits, etc.
were taken over by the Trustees.

SIR JOHN MONASH

Born at Melbourne, 1865, educated at the Scotch
College and at the University of Melbourne (M.C.E.
1891 5 B.A. 1895; LL.B. 1895). In 1884 commenced
practice as a civil engineer. In 1900 he introduced re-
inforced concrete construction into Victoria, Tasmania, and
South Australia. In 1913-15 was President of the Vic-
torian Institute of Engineers. He was an enthusiastic
officer of the citizen forces. In 1887 he received his
first Commission: (Lieutenant, 18 87 3 Captain, 1895}
Major, 1897; Lieutenant-Colonel, 1908; Colonel, 19135
Brigadier-General, 1914; Major-General, 1916; Lieu-
tenant-General, 1918). In 1901 he commanded
the North Melbourne Artillery, and from 1907
to 1914 was an officer of the Intelligence Corps.
On the outbreak of the war he was appointed Chief Censor
for Australia. Within a month he was given command
of the 4th Infantry Brigade and accompanied it to Gal-
lipoli. On the transfer of his Brigade to France he was
given the command of the 3rd Australian Division. In
1918 he succeeded General Birdwood in command of the
Australian Army Corps in France. After the Armistice
he was appointed Director-General of Demobilization for

244 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

the A.I.F. In 1920 he was made Doctor of Engineering,
and in the same year the Victorian Government appointed
him Chairman of the State's Electricity Supply Commis-
sion. In 1924 he was President of the Australasian As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science. (C.B. 1915j
K.C.B. 1918; G.C.M.G. 1919.)

THOMAS SUTCLIFFE MORT (1816-1878)

Born on 23rd December 1816 at Bolton in Lanca-
shire, England. In 1838 he arrived at Sydney and was
employed by Aspinall Brown & Co. as salesman and clerk.
In 1841 he helped promote the Hunter River Naviga-
tion Company (later Australasian United Steam Navi-
gation Company). In 1843 he commenced business as
Auctioneer and Wool Broker and began experiments in
exporting cured animal foods to England. In 1845 he
initiated Mort & Co. and in 1 849 promoted the first rail-
way in New South Wales the Parramatta-Sydney Rail-
way. In 1851 he promoted the "Great Nugget Vein
Mining Co." In 1854 he commenced excavation of
Mort's Dock the largest in Australia. In 1856 he
established Bodalla Farm (38,000 acres) in Southern
Coastal District (dairying) and in the early 1860's pro-
moted the Peak Downs Copper Mining Co. (Queens-
land) and the Waratah Coal Mining Company (New-
castle). In 1863 he enlarged the docking business and
established a shipyard and engineering works later
merged into Mort's Dock & Engineering Company. In
1870 he commenced his experiments in exporting frozen
meat to England. In 1873 he provided his workmen
with shares in the Mort's Dock & Engineering Company.
In 1875 he established a slaughter-house and freezing -
works at Lithgow and ice-works at Darling Harbour.
Died in 1878 at Bodalla, May 9th.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 245

ARTHUR ALEXANDER WALTER ONSLOW

(1833-1882)

Born at Trichinopoly, in India, 1833, and brought
to Sydney in 1838. Taken to England in 184-1 and
entered on board H.M.S. Howe as a midshipman,
May, 1847 (Lieutenant 1852; Commander 18 63 5 Post
Captain 1871). Served in the Channel and Mediter-
ranean Squadrons and off the west coast of Africa (1850-
51). For four years he was engaged in the survey of
Shark Bay, Torres Straits, and the external reefs of the
Great Barrier. Returning to England in 1861 he served
in the Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterranean. He left
the service owing to bad health and came to reside in
Sydney. In 1874 he accompanied William Macleay
in an exploration of the New Guinea coast. He was
elected to the Assembly, for Camden, in 1869 and was
appointed to the Legislative Council in 1880. Died
in 1882.

FRANCIS ORMOND (1829-1889)

Born at Aberdeen, Scotland, 1829, and educated in
Liverpool. He was brought to Victoria by his parents
in 1842 where after an adventure in commercial life he
became a squatter. He was a great educationalist and
gave 100,000 to Ormond College, within the Univer-
sity} 20,000 to endow a Chair of Music at the Univer-
sity and 11,000 to the Melbourne Working Men's Col-
lege. He also left large sums to hospitals and asylums.
Died in France 1889. From 1882 to his death he was
a member of the Victorian Legislative Council.

SIR WILLIAM OWEN (1834-1912)

Born on 4th November 1834 and educated at Chel-
tenham and at Trinity College, Dublin. He was called
to Irish Bar in 1859. Arrived in Sydney, 1860, Ad-

146 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

mitted to the N.S.W. Bar the same year. Q.C. 1882,
and in 1887 Chief Judge in Equity. He was transferred
to Common Law side of the Supreme Court in 1896.
In 1892 he was a member of a commission to investigate
the charges brought by a Member of Parliament against
the Chief Commissioner for Railways. In 1905 he was
given sole charge of the investigation into the scandals
connected with the administration of the Crown Lands.
He was Head of the tribunal that cancelled many
wrongly obtained leases and whose decisions, when ques-
tioned, were expressly validated by Act of Parliament.
Retired in 1908 from Bench and died 22nd November,
1912. (Kt Bach. 1906).

SIR PETER NICOL RUSSELL (1816-1905)

Born at Kilcaldy, Scotland, 1816, and came to
Hobart in 1832. In 1839 he settled in Sydney and with
his two brothers established the firm of P. N. Russell &
Co., in 1842, blacksmiths, engineers and founders, which
became one of the most important businesses in Australia.
In 1867 he retired from active business to settle in Lon-
don where he represented the firm. In 1875 the busi-
ness was closed down. In 1896 he gave 50,000 to
endow the Department of Engineering at the University
of Sydney, and in 1904 another 50,000 on condition that
the Government gave 25,000 to erect new buildings for
the department. He died in London 1905. (K.C.M.G.
1904).

JAMES RUTHERFORD (1827-1911)

Born at Erie, U.S.A., 1827. In 1852 migrated to
Victoria. Visited Brisbane and returning overland became
interested in horse-dealing. Later he acquired an interest
in the coaching business of Cobb & Co. He reorganised

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 247

and extended the Victorian services and secured a mon-
opoly of the mail contracts. In partnership with Walter
R. Hall and W. F. Whitney the New South Wales busi-
ness was established, Rutherford making his headquar-
ters at Bathurst. The business was extended to Queens-
land in 1865. By 1870 Cobb and Co. were harnessing
6000 horses per day, their coaches were travelling 28,000
miles per week, their annual pay-sheet exceeded 100,000
and they received 95,000 per annum in mail subsidies.
The firm gradually acquired extensive pastoral pro-
perties in New South Wales and Queensland and im-
ported prize stock on a large scale. Rutherford also
founded the Eskbank Ironworks at Lithgow. He died
at Mackay, in Queensland, 1911.

SIR GRANVILLE DE LAUNE RYRIE

Born at Michelago in New South Wales, 1865, and
educated at The King's School, Parramatta. He was
elected by Queanbeyan to the Legislative Assembly of
New South Wales (1906-9) and was Member for North
Sydney in the Commonwealth House of Representatives
(1911) Honorary Minister (1920) and Assistant Minister
for Defence. He joined the 1st Australian Horse (2nd
Lieutenant 1898; Lieutenant 1899; Captain 1901;
Major 1903; Lieutenant-Colonel 1904; Colonel 19l4j
Brigadier-General 1914; Major-General 1919) and was
for seven years in command of the 3rd Light Horse Regi-
ment, New South Wales. Served with the Mounted Rifles
in the South African War (1900-1). He was appointed
to the command of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade in 1914
and served with it through the greater part of the Gal-
lipoli campaign, and afterwards in Palestine. In 1919 he
was promoted to the rank of Major-General and for some
time commanded the A.I.F. in Egypt. In 1927 he was
appointed High Commissioner at London for Australia
(C.M.G. 1916; C.B. 1918; K.C.M.G. 1919.)

148 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

SIR MARK SHELDON

Born at Armidale, New South Wales, 1871. Edu-
cated at Riverview College, St. Cuthbert's College,
Ushaw, Durham, England, and at the University of
Sydney. He entered the firm of Dalton Bros, in 1890
and in 1902 was made Managing Director. Was elected
a Director of the Australian Bank of Commerce and
Chairman, which office he retains. In June 1919 he suc-
ceeded Sir Henry Braddon as Australian Commissioner
to the United States, America, and in 1922 was a Repre-
sentative of the Commonwealth at the annual meeting
of the League of Nations. In 1924-25 was a member of
the British Economic Commission sitting in London. In
1925 he returned to Australia and resumed his commer-
cial career. (Kt. Bach. 1922 5 K.B.E. 1925).

JOHN McGARVIE SMITH (1844-1918)

Born at Paddington, near Sydney, in 1 844. Studied
chemistry at the University of Sydney and qualified as
a Metallurgist, devoting himself to devising treatments
for refractory ores. Later he interested himself in bac-
teriology, erected a specially equipped laboratory and en-
gaged a Viennese bacteriologist to instruct him in micro-
biology. In 1893 he reported to the Metropolitan Board
of Water-Supply and Sewerage on germs found in the
Sydney sewers. He discovered a vaccine for anthrax
which gives protection by a single inoculation and keeps
indefinitely. He aided the establishment of a McGarvie
Smith Institute, controlled by a Board representing the
Government and Pastoralists of New South Wales to
manufacture and distribute the vaccine. Died, 1918.

SIR ROSS MACPHERSON SMITH (1892-1922)

Born at Semaphore, South Australia, 1892. Edu-
cated at The Queen's School, North Adelaide, and at

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 249

Moffat, Scotland. Entered on a business career in Ade-
laide and in 1914 enlisted in the A.LK with the 3rd
Light Horse (2nd Lieutenant 1915} Lieutenant 1916;
Lieutenant A.F.C. 1917 5 Temporary Captain 1917} Cap-
tain 1918). Was in Egypt and Gallipoli. In 1 9 1 6 he
qualified as observer in the Australian Flying Corps and
gave valuable air service. In 1919, he and his brother
Keith, won the prize of 10,000 offered by the Com-
monwealth Government to the first Australian airman who
should reach Australia by air within 720 consecutive hours 3
flying, in a machine constructed wholly within the British
Empire and manned by an all-Australian Crew. Smith
accomplished the task in 135 flying hours covering a
distance of 11,340 miles 5 the machine used being a Vic-
kers-Vimy aeroplane. The crew were Ross Smith, Keith
Smith, and Sergeants J. M. Bennett and W. H. Shiers.

After a stay of some months in Australia Ross Smith
left for England to arrange for a flight around the world.
During trial flights the machine crashed and he was in-
stantly killed (1922) (K.B.E, 1919).

SIR WILLIAM FOSTER STAWELL (1815-1889)

Born in County Cork, Ireland, 1815. Educated at
the University of Dublin (B.A. 1837, Hon. LL.D.
1874). Studied law at King's Inn, Dublin and at Lin-
coln Inn, Called to the Irish Bar in 1839 and in 1841
migrated to Australia. Admitted to the Port Phillip
bar and for some years combined legal practice with pas-
toral work. In 1851, when the Colony of Victoria was
established, he became Attorney-General, and drafted the
Constitution Act of 1854. He was returned at the first
Victorian elections and became Attorney-General. In
1857 he resigned his seat and became first Chief Justice
of the Colony. In 1886 he resigned the Chief Justice-
ship and in 1887 was appointed Lieutenant-Governor.

250 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

In 1889 he went to Europe on account of ill-health, and
died at Naples, 1889.

He was a strong supporter of scientific work and in
1858-9 was President of the Philosophical Institute of
Victoria. He was one of the original Trustees of the
Victorian Public Library (1853-89) and Chancellor of
the Melbourne University in 1881-82. (Kt. Bach. 1858;
K.C.M.G. 1886).

SIR ALFRED STEPHEN (1802-1894)

Sir Alfred Stephen, born at Basseterre, St. Christo-
pher, West Indies, on August 20th, 1802, was educated
at the Charterhouse and at Honiton Grammar School,
England Entered Lincoln Inn in 1818, was called to
the bar in 1823. In July, 1824, went to Hobart as
Solicitor-General and was admitted to the local bar in
February "1825, and on April 25th was also appointed
Crown Solicitor. He organised Courts of Justice,
framed statutes for the Legislature and advocated trial by
jury which was conceded in 1834. From 1833 to
1837 he was Attorney-General to the colony. In 1839
he was appointed temporarily to Judge Burton's place on
the Supreme Court Bench, New South Wales, and when
in 1841 Burton resumed duty was made a puisne judge.
In 1844 appointed Chief Justice. 1856 became Presi-
dent of the first Legislative Council under responsible
Government but retired from the Council in 1858. In
1870 he presided over a Commission to revise the Statute
Laws, the labours of which were made law in 1883. In
1873, after 29 years 3 service retired from Chief Justice-
ship and in March 1875 was nominated to the Legislative
Council. In November of that year was made Lieut-Go-
vernor. His seat in the Council was vacant during March-
August, 1879, and between November-December, 1885,
to allow him to administer the Colony, after these re-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 251

tirements was immediately renominated to the Council.
He retired from the Council altogether in October 1890
to administer the colony in the absence of Lord Carring-
ton. He died at Sydney on October 15th, 1894. (Kt.
Bach., 1846; C.B., 1862; K.C.M.G., 1874$ G.C.M.G.,
1884 5 P-C., 1893.)

SIR MATTHEW HENRY STEPHEN (1828-1920)

Born at Hobart 5th December, 1828. Arrived in
Sydney, 1839. Educated Sydney College. Became asso-
ciate to Chief Justice Bowling, sent to England for legal
study. On his return was associate to his father Sir
Alfred Stephen. Admitted N.S.W. Bar 30th November
1850 the first native Australian to be admitted and first
colonial Barrister to be admitted under the Colonial Act.
On several occasions refused the Solicitor-Generalship.
In December, 1869, he was elected by Mudgee to Legis-
lative Assembly and resigned in 1871. In 1880 he took
silk. In 1887 he was made Puisne Judge and in 1902-3
was Acting Chief Justice, but retired at end of 1903.
Died April 1920.

JOHN TEBBUTT (1834-1916)

Born at Windsor, New South Wales, 1834, and edu-
cated at the Parish School. In 1843 commenced the
study of astronomy and in 1853-57 published his observa-
tions on the variable star Eta Argus. In 1862 he refused
the appointment as New South Wales Government As-
tronomer. In 1863 he erected a small observatory on
the Peninsula, Windsor. In 1879 he built a brick obser-
vatory, installing a transit instrument and equitorial re-
fractor of 8-in. aperture, 115-in. focal length. In 1881
he discovered another comet which he successfully pho-

252 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

tographed. In 1895 he was chosen first President of the
British Astronomical Association (New South Wales
Branch). He died at Windsor, 1916.

SIR EDWARD DEAS THOMSON (1800-1879)

Born at Edinburgh, 1800. Educated at the Edin-
burgh High School, at Harrow and at Caen, in Nor-
mandy. Studied mercantile methods and helped his
father to introduce into the Navy the double-entry system
of book-keeping. In 1826 he visited the United States
and Canada, and in 1827 was appointed a registrar at
Demerara, in British Guiana. The clerkship of the
N.S.W. Legislative Council being vacant he effected an
exchange and reached Sydney in 1828. In 1837 he be-
came Colonial Secretary. In 1854 he went to England
to watch the passage of the Constitution through the Eng-
lish Parliament. When responsible Government was
established he retired from the Colonial Secretaryship.
He was invited to form the first ministry but failed and
became an original member of the Legislative Council
in 1861 he was appointed a life member.

He was an ardent supporter of higher education,
and in 1849 was a member of the select committee to in-
quire into the establishment of a University. He was
appointed to the University Senate in 1850, became Vice-
Chancellor in 1862, and was Chancellor from 1865 to
1878. For many years he was president of the Austra-
lian Jockey Club. He died in Sydney in 1879. (C.B.
1856j K.C.M.G. 1874.)

SIR CHARLES TODD (1826-1910)

Born at Islington, London, 1826. Educated pri-
vately. In 1841-47 supernumerary computer at Green-
wich Observatory and in 1 848 became Assistant Astrono-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 253

mer at the Cambridge Observatory, where he helped to
determine the telegraphic distance between Cambridge
and Greenwich. In 1854 he was recalled to Greenwich to
take charge of the Galvanic Department and in 1855 was
appointed Superintendent of Telegraphs for South Aus-
tralia and a Director of the Adelaide Observatory. In
1859 he suggested the construction of a line from Ade-
laide to Port Darwin and thence to England. In 1870
he became Postmaster General. He supervised the con-
struction of the line between Adelaide and Port Darwin
and in 1872 completed it, communication with England
being established on October 21st. He then built 1000
mile line to Eucla where it joined up with the Western
Colony's telegraphic system. In 1889 he was made a
Fellow of the Royal Society, and retired from public
service in 1906, having been Government Astronomer
for 51 years. He died in 1910. (C.M.G. 1872;
K.CJMLG. 1893).

JAMES TYSON (1823-1898)

Born at Cowpastures, 1823. Commenced his pas-
toral work as working overseer at Morton Park, near
Camden. In 1844 he took up Barwidgee Station in the
Ovens District. Later he joined his brother in forming
Gunambill Station on the Billabong. The venture was
at first unsuccessful but in 1851 their fortunes changed.
He took droves of cattle to the diggings at Bendigo
and in four years had accumulated enough money to buy
up several Riverina runs, among them Deniliquin and
Juanbong. Soon after he bought Heyfield in Gipps-
land, Felton, on the Darling Downs in Queensland and
several stations along the Warrego. In 1892, in a time
of financial depression, he took up 250,000 of Treasury
Bills and his public spirit was acknowledged by an appoint-
ment to the Legislative Council. He died in 1898 leav-
ing an estate worth two and a half millions.

254 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

SIR SAMUEL JAMES WAY (1836-1916)

Born at Portsmouth, England, 1836, and educated
privately. He emigrated to Australia in 1853. Trained
for the law, he was admitted to the local bar in 1861
(Q.C. 1871). In 1874 he was made a member of the
Board of Education and of the first Council of the Uni-
versity of Adelaide, becoming Vice-Chancellor in 1876
and Chancellor from 1883 to his death. In 1875 he was
elected to the Assembly for the Sturt District and was
made Attorney-General, resigning in 1876 to take the
office of Chief Justice of the Colony. In 1891 he was
made Lieutenant-Governor. In 1897 he was sworn in
as a Privy Councillor and took his seat on the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council as the first representa-
tive Australian Judge. He died at Adelaide, 1916.

ALBERT BYTHESEA WE1GALL (1840-1912)

Born at Nantes, Normandy, France, in 1840, and
educated at the Macclesfield Grammar School and at
Brasenose College, Oxford (B.A. 1862). Arrived in
Melbourne in 1863 to take up the position of classical
master at Scotch College. In 1866 he was appointed
to the headmastership of the Sydney Grammar School,
which post he retained for 45 years. In 1 880 he helped
to found the Headmasters' Association and later the
Teachers' Association (now the Teachers' Guild). He
died in 1912. (C.M.G. 1909.)

SIR CYRIL BRUDENELL BINGHAM WHITE

Born at St. Arnaud, Victoria, 1876. Educated at
the State School at Hendra (a suburb of Brisbane) and
at Nundah. Entered the service of the Australian Joint
Stock Bank at Brisbane in 1892 and resigned in 1899.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 255

Was appointed provisional lieutenant in the militia in
1896 (Lieutenant 1897) and later joined the Queens-
land permanent artillery (Captain 1908; Major 191 lj
Lieutenant-Colonel 1914; Colonel 1915, Brigadier-
General 1915; Major General 191?5 temporary Lieu-
tenant General 1918). He served through the South
African war as a subaltern in the 1st Commonwealth
Horse and after returning to Australia in 1904 was aide-
de-camp to Major General Sir Edward Hutton, Com-
mander-in-Chief of the Australian Forces. He was the
first Australian officer chosen to attend the Staff College
at Camberley, England, and was retained for several
years after his course ended. On his return to Australia
he became Director of Military Operations.

On the outbreak of the war of 1914-18 General
Bridges chose him as his Chief of Staff. During the Gal-
lipoli campaign he was appointed Chief of General Staff
of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps and
formed the scheme for the evacuation of the peninsula.
As Birdwood's Chief of Staff he was responsible for
planning the Australian operations in France. When
Birdwood was transferred to the command of the Fifth
British Army, White was transferred with him, acting
as Chief of General Staff until the end of the war.

Returning to Australia in 1919 as Lieutenant-
General to advise the Commonwealth Government on
future; 1 military organisation, he became Chief of the
General Staff and was appointed Chairman of Commis-
sioners of the Commonwealth Public Service Board. In
1928 he retired and accepted the office of Superintendent
of the New Zealand Loan and Mercantile Agency Co.
Ltd. in Australia.

(D.S.O. 1915; C.B. 1916; C.M.G. 1918; K.C.M.G.
1919; K.C.V.O. 1920).

256 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

JAMES WHITE (1828-1890)

Born at Scone, New South Wales, 1828. Edu-
cated at the King's School, Parramatta. On his father's
death in 1844, he took over the management of several
estates, including Edenglassie, near Muswellbrook, and
Timor, on the Isis. To these he added until he owned
the greater part of the Hunter Valley, above Denman.
He represented the district in the Assembly (1864-68)
resigning in order to travel. He contested the consti-
tuency again in 1872 and was defeated} and was nom-
inated to the Council in 1874 and sat there until his
death. He was a great patron of the turf and won, at
one time or another, nearly every important race listed
at Australian meetings; and owned (among other notable
racehorses) Martini-Henry and Nordenfeldt; and with
Chester in 1877 won that much-coveted double the
V.R.C. Derby and the Melbourne Cup. He died at
Rose Bay in 1890.

EDWARD WILSON (1814-1878)

Born at Hampstead, England, and trained for com-
mercial pursuits. Migrated to Port Phillip in 1842.
In 1844 he joined J. S. Johnson in a cattle station near
Dandenong. While managing this station he wrote some
letters to the Melbourne press that encouraged him to
take up journalism as a profession. In 1847, joined by
Johnson, he bought the "Argus" and in 1851 incorpor-
ated it with the "Daily News." In 1857 he visited
England and on his return travelled in Queensland,
South Australia, and New Zealand 5 eye-trouble prevent-
ing him taking part in the management of the paper. In
1864 he returned to England and settled in Kent. He
died in 1878 leaving the greater part of his wealth to
philanthropic objects in Victoria.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 257

He was the founder of the Acclimatization Society
of Victoria in 1861, and one of the founders of the Royal
Colonial Institute, in 1868.

SIR SAMUEL WILSON (1832-1895)

Born at Ballycloughan, Ireland, 1832, and educated
at Ballymena. In 1852 he migrated to Australia to join
his brothers and worked for a time on the Victorian Gold-
fields. He then settled down to station life, commenc-
ing as Manager of his brother's station and then joining
in the purchase of Longerenong Station, in the Wim-
mera $ later purchasing other stations near by. Early in
the seventies he sold his Wimmera station and bought
property on the plains between Camperdown and Bal-
larat He was also interested in squatting properties in
the Darling District of New South Wales and the Peak
Down District of Queensland. He was a great breeder
and acclimatiser, interesting himself not only in sheep,
but in Angora goats, salmon, trout and ostriches. He
was elected member for Wimmera in the Victorian Legis-
lative Assembly in 1861 and from 1875 to 1880 repre-
sented the Western Provinces in the Council. He went
to England and entered Parliament as member for
Portsmouth y resigning in 1892* In 1874 he gave
30,000 to build the Wilson Hall at the University of
Melbourne. He died in England in 1895. (Kt. Bach,
1875).

SIR WILLIAM CHARLES WINDEYER (1834-
1897)

Born at Westminster 29th September 1834. Son
of Richard Windeyer and was a member of the first Par-
liament of N.S.W. Educated at King's School, Parra-

258 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

matta, and Sydney University, being one of the first
matriculants and the first graduate of that body (B.A.
1856; M.A. 1859). Called to N.S.W. Bar in 1857 and
became law reporter of the "Empire." Entered Legis-
lative Assembly 29th June 1859 and for the greater part
of the succeeding twenty years followed a political career
(member for Lower Hunter 1859-60; for West Syd-
ney 1860-62; 1866-72; for the University 1876-79).
Initiated Volunteer Movement in 1860 and was elected
Captain 1860; Major 1868. After many refusals of
office he became Solicitor-General (1870) in the Martin
Ministry and was Attorney-General in the Parkes Mini-
stries of 1877 and 1878. Resigned office August 1879
to become temporary judge of the Supreme Court, and
in August 1881 was made a Puisne Judge an appoint-
ment he held for 15 years. In 1896 he resigned on a
pension and the Colonial Government submitted his
name to represent Australia on the Judicial Committee
of the Privy Council, but Sir S. Way, from South Aus-
tralia, was chosen. He was asked to act as emergency
judge in Newfoundland by the British Government, but
whilst touring Europe before taking up his position he
died of appendicitis and was cremated at Bologna, in
Italy, on 12th September 1897.

Apart from politics and the la\^Windeyer had many
public interests. He was a strong advocate of open
spaces for the people, and in 1862 secured for them both
the smaller Sydney parks and in 1878 Clark Island,
Shark Island, and several other islands in Port Jackson
and Broken Bay. In 1874 originated the Discharged
Prisoners 3 Aid Society. His special interest in Education
was shown not only in Parliament but by his active work
for the University (of which he was Vice-Chancellor in
1883-87 and Chancellor 1 895-96), and Women's College
(of whose Trustees he was Chairman), the Sydney

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 259

Grammar School (of which he was a Trustee from 1873
onwards and for many years Chairman of Trustees), and
the Sydney School of Arts. In 1 8 87 was granted LL.D.
degree by Cambridge University. (Kt Bach. 1891.)

Among other distinguished Citizens can be men-
tioned the following, who have given their valued
services to Australia: Hon. Mr Justice Hargrave,
Hon. Mr. Justice Faucett, Hon. Sir F. B. Suttor, A. T.
Holroyd, Charles Cowper, John Williams (Crown
Solicitor), Hon. Sir G. Wigram Allen, Hon. Edward
Butler, Q.C., Hon. Charles Campbell, Hon. John
Campbell, Hon. Mr. Justice C. J. Manning, C. E.
Pilcher, M.L.A., G. H. Fitzhardinge, C. B. Stephen,
Hon. Mr. Justice R. D. Pring, Hon. Mr. Justice R. E.
O'Connor, Sir John Hogg, Hon. Alfred Deakin, Wil-
liam Farrer, Mr. Shepheard Smith, G.M., Bank of
N.S.W., Edward Chisholm, Christopher Rolleston.
H. A. Armitage, Melbourne, Grazier and Company
Director; Hon. James Ashton, Sydney, M.L.C., Mini-
ster for Lands in former Government and Acting
Premier, Grazier and Company Director; Hon. W. L.
Baillieu, Melbourne, Director and Founder of many
Industrial and Mining Companies; H. L. Austin, Graz-
ier, "Eli Elwoli," Hay, celebrated for Stud Merino Sheep
and Shorthorn Cattle.

THE "WALTER AND ELIZA HALL" TRUST.

Chief among princely donations bestowed by the
generous, stands the "Walter and Eliza Hall" Trust,
ounded for educational and benevolent purposes by Mrs.
Eliza Rowdon Hall after the death of her husband in
1912.

The wonderful discovery in 1882 of the mountain
of gold afterwards known as Mount Morgan yielded
fortunes to all who had the foresight to hold their in-
terests during its early vicissitudes. Among these was
the late Walter Hall, one of the principal shareholders.
This addition to his wealth, however, did not inspire ex-
travagant or selfish thoughts in its possessor. Remem-
bering his own career, which had not been free from
anxious and troublous times, he viewed with sympathy
the trials of the younger generation, which he endea-
voured by every means to lessen, so that he might help
young aspirants to success or alleviate the distress of
failure. His widow resolved to carry on in perpetuity
the good work which he had begun. Hence the "Walter
and Eliza Hall" Trust a noble memorial.

Mrs. Eliza Rowdon Hall was the eldest daughter
of the late Mr. George Kirk, who was associated as a
pastoralist with the late Richard Goldsbrough, one of the
founders of the great woolbroking firm of Goldsbrough,
Mort and Co, Soon after the death of her husband Mrs
Hall founded, with a munifident donation of a million
pounds sterling, the "Walter and Eliza Hall" Trust

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 261

the largest gift made to charity by any woman in our
Empire. Its objects were':

(a) The relief of poverty.

(b) The advancement of education.

(c) The advancement of religion in accordance
with the tenets of the Church of England.

(d) The general benefit of the community in ways
not falling under any of the preceding head-
ings.

One-half of the annual income is for distribution in
New South Wales, a quarter in Victoria, and a quarter in
Queensland.

So far as is practicable, one-third of the income de-
voted to each State is primarily for application to the
benefit of women and children.

The sum distributed during 1928 was 46,293 8s.
9d., while the total expenditure on administration which
is kept as low as possible scarcely exceeded three per
cent.

As the first trustees Mrs. Hall appointed Messrs.
R. G. Casey, Kelso King, Adrian Knox, and J. Russell
French, all well known in commercial life. Brigadier-
General Finn, C.B., D.C.M., a distinguished Imperial
officer, was the first Secretary.

The "Walter and Eliza Hall" Trust was declared
on 24th May, 1912, and came into operation on 1st Janu-
ary, 1913. Since that date it has helped a great number
of charities, and relieved thousands who would otherwise
have been practically destitute. Education, in both uni-
versities and schools, is also being endowed, and grants are
made to assist in the building, establishing, and extension
of schools. The total distribution during the sixteen
years to December 1928 amounted to 629,471 1 Is. 2d.

On February 14th, 1916, Mrs. Hall died at her

262 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

home, "Wildfell," Potts Point, Sydney. She was sin-
cerely lamented and will ever be remembered for her
unaffected, kindly, and generous disposition.

The present trustees are Messrs. Kelso King, P. V.
McCulloch, G. E. Fairfax, G. M. Merivale, and C. M.
C. Shannon. The Secretary is Miss K. H. Finn.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS OF THE
MERCANTILE MUTUAL INSURANCE CO. LTD.

THE BIRTH AND GROWTH OF

THE MERCANTILE MUTUAL INSURANCE

COMPANY, LIMITED

DURING the autumn of the year 1 877 cricket authorities
in Australia decided to send an eleven to England. After
some controversy the team was chosen, including the two
Bannermans, Murdoch, Horan, D. Gregory, Blackham,
Bailey, Boyle, Spoiforth, Kendall, and Allen. Many
critics claimed that the team was not representative, and
eventually, to place the question beyond dispute, a New
South Wales fifteen was chosen to play the Australian
Eleven. The New South Wales team comprised Sheri-
dan, Gregory, Humphreys, Geary, Evans-Rush, Powell,
Tindall, Dummett, Pocock, Burrowes, Docker, Webster,
Hannigan, and Brown. The match was played on No-
vember 23-25 and resulted in a win for the Australian
eleven by four wickets.

Among the spectators at the match on the Sydney
Cricket Ground was Mr George Hardie. His attention
was, however, diverted, for that morning he had been
approached by G. Allen Mansfield, the leading Sydney
architect, and A, H. McCulloch, one of the best-known
solicitors, with a proposal for a new Insurance Company.
The suggestion had caught his imagination, and, as he
moved through the grounds, he spoke of the matter to
several friends. He found the idea well supported, and
before the end of the day had received promises of a very
large portion of the capital required.

266 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

During the next week Hardie, Mansfield, and Mc-
Culloch started to give practical shape to their new Com-
pany and draft the prospectus. While they worked, new
friends were coming forward with requests to be allotted
shares, until, by the time their work was ready to go to
the printer, they had received applications for the whole
of the capital.

A little before Christmas 1877 a meeting of the
shareholders of the new Insurance Company was held,
and John Pope (Chairman), G. Allen Mansfield, W. H.
Paling, George Hardie, and Captain Broomfield were
elected directors. The prospectus provided for a capital
of 100,000 shares of 1 each.

In response to the advertisement for the post of
secretary to "The Mercantile Mutual Insurance Com-
pany" a large number of applications were received, and
after very careful consideration Kelso King, a young man
of twenty-four years of age, was appointed. How wise
this selection was is shown by the fact that Mr. King
has been the chief executive officer of the Company-
through the fifty years of its life and now holds the posi-
tion of Managing Director.

The location of the offices of the new Company
gave the directors much anxiety. At that time ground-
floor offices were very difficult to secure in Sydney. Only
by chance did the secretary become aware that Mr. Reed,
a second-hand piano dealer, was prepared to dispose of
his lease of two small rooms in Pitt Street for the sum
of 50. These premises were in a building on the site
where now stands the Piccadilly Theatre. It should be
noted that, while the lease was then considered worth
only 50, the present building was sold a few weeks ago
for a price approximating 1592 per foot.

The registration of the Company was secured on
January 10, 1878, and the Mercantile Mutual Insurance

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 267

Company Limited immediately opened its doors for
business.

The new Company proved highly attractive to im-
portant Sydney people. Most of the prominent busi-
ness and professional men of that era appear on its Share
Register, and from the first day applications for insur-
ance came in freely. The remarkable development shown
in the following table gives ample proof of the confi-
dence felt by Australians in their own institution.

Premium Income for Quinquennium to June 30, 1883

1888
1893
1898
1903
1908
1913
1918
1923
1928

65,268

83,937

177,788

212,889

273,416

327,947

520,665

957,550

1,616,914

3,526,839

It is of interest to note that at the date of the found-
ing of the Mercantile Mutual Insurance Company the
total population of Australia was less than the present
population of New South Wales. Of the State popula-
tions Victoria had a commanding lead, with 860,787 as
against 662,212 in New South Wales. South Australia
came third with 236,864, and Queensland fourth, with
203,084 inhabitants in her vast territory. Tasmania had
107,104, and Western Australia, a State comprising one
third of the whole continent, only 27,838.

The Mercantile Mutual Insurance Company re-
mained in the small offices only until 1 879, when larger
premises became imperative and a move was made to
131 Pitt Street. A further nove was made in 1886 to
a freehold acquired at 118-120 in the same street, on
which was erected a building containing four floors and
a basement In 1914 the Company had again outgrown
these quarters and purchased the handsome building at
12-16 Martin Place, the commercial centre of the city.

268 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

Finding that the requirements of the staff and the
convenience of the public necessitated greater ground-
floor space, and ascertaining that the Martin Place pro-
perty could be sold at a substantial profit on the original
purchase, the directors decided to acquire and demolish
the buildings at 1 1 7 Pitt Street and to erect the hand-
some premises now occupied by the company. The
building is the full height of 150 feet allowed by law.
It covers an area of 61 ft. 6 in. to Pitt Street, with a
depth of 137 ft. to 141 ft. at the rear. There is a spa-
cious ground-floor and a lower ground-floor, both well-
lighted and mechanically ventilated. Above, there are
ten upper floors and a flat roof for the recreation of the
staff. The building is constructed of steel framing with
concrete floors. The front elevation, to the floor level
of the second floor, has been carried out in trachyte, with
six handsome columns with Corinthian capitals- Inter-
nally the building has been finished in an up-to-date
manner. Three fast electric elevators of the latest type
are installed, and large light-areas give ample illumina-
tion to all rooms. The corridors are brightened by the
use of polished marble. Transom lights throughout the
building materially assist the fine lighting arrangements.
The architects were Robertson & Marks and the builders
J. C. Harrison & Son. The wisdom of providing for the
future as well as the present requirements of the growing
business is apparent, and gives evidence of confidence
in the stability of Australia and of its continued progress
which all far-sighted citizens recognise as likely to be
maintained.

At its inception the operations of the Mercantile
Mutual Insurance Company were confined to New South
Wales. But in 1901 the directors decided to extend their
operations to the neighbouring States and in that year
a branch was opened at 9 Queen Street, Melbourne. A
few years later the Company acquired the present pre-

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 269

mises at 1 Queen Street, Melbourne, as the Victorian
Headquarters, valued, with remodelling, at 25,000.

The first Victorian Directors to be appointed were
R. J. Alcock, J.P., head of the firm of James Service &
Co., and J. M. Gillespie, O.B.E., chairman of the Free-
hold Assets Company. Both of these gentlemen were
well known in business, public, and philanthropic work
in Melbourne for many years. Later they were joined in
the directorate by W. J. S. Eaves, of McLaughlin, Eaves
& Johnson, solicitors, and by A. L. Wettenhall, of Park-
inson & Wettenhall, solicitors. R. W. Heggie is the local
manager and A. J. Loughnan the resident secretary. Both
these officers have many years of fine service to their
credit.

In August 1912 a branch was opened in Queensland.
The first offices were established at 377 Queen Street,
Brisbane. They were found to be too small for the quickly
increasing business, and, an opportunity occurring to make
a sale at a satisfactory price, the Company purchased the
present commodious premises at Eagle Street, which cost,
with re-modelling, 29,640.

The Queensland directors of the Mercantile
Mutual Insurance Company are W. Hamilton Hart, of
the firm of Flower & Hart, solicitors, and Robert Willis
Taylor, of the firm of Taylor & Elliott. J. G. Milne
is the local manager, appointed from Head Office, where
he served for many years.

In 1920 it was decided to open business in North
Queensland, and a branch was established at Flinders
Street, Townsville, in the premises of Bartlams, Ltd.
J. J. Kelleher, the manager of that firm represents the
Mercantile Mutual Insurance Company, assisted by a
trained staff. J. C. Deacon is resident secretary. Later
in the same year there was a further expansion of the
business in North Queensland, a branch being opened

270 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

at Cairns under the control of the manager of the Estate
of H. S. Williams, Ltd., the present chief agents for the
Company in Cairns.

The South Australian business of the Company was
established in Adelaide in September 1917. The first
South Australian offices were situated at the corner of
King William and Pirie Streets, Adelaide. The present
premises, at the corner of Pirie Street and Coromandel
Place, were recently purchased at a cost, including re-
modelling, of 22,441.

The directors of the South Australian branch are
Napier K. Birks and F. E. Cornish, of Charles Birks &
Co., Ltd., and Norman Jackson, of A. R. B. Lucas & Co.
The local manager is W. H. Sheppard, also a Head
Office man with many years' service to his credit.

During November 1919 the Tasmanian business of
the Mercantile Mutual Insurance Company was estab-
lished, and branches were opened at Hobart and Launces-
ton. The Hobart branch was first established at 113-115
Macquarie Street. Later, to meet the growing demands,
the present offices, situated at 105 Macquarie Street, were
purchased, considerable additions and re-modellings
being necessary, at a total cost of 12,459. Robert Net-
tlefold is chairman and local director and Ross Wilkins
appointed first as inspector is local manager of the
Tasmanian business. Northern Tasmanian interests are
looked after by the Launceston branch, situated at 60
Cameron Street, under the control of W. H. Hart & Co.,
acting as chief agents for the Northern District of Tas-
mania.

The Western Australian Branch of the Company
was opened during April 1920. It is now situated at
9 Barrack Street, Perth. H. J. Wigmore & Co. are the
chief representatives and the local manager is W. Chas.
Taylor.

FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA 271

All the above-mentioned local directors, executive
officers, and their staffs have been untiring in their efforts
to assist the development o the business at their respec-
tive branches.

To-day the Mercantile Mutual Insurance Company
Limited has agents in every city and township in Aus-
tralia, and also representatives in most parts of the
world. The big Company of to-day has grown, during
fifty years, from the two little rooms at 168 Pitt Street,
Sydney, where operations were commenced. At first the
business handled was chiefly fire insurance, but, to keep
pace with the growth of the Commonwealth, the Com-
pany launched out into other classes of insurance, and
to-day its activities embrace all forms except life.

This progressive Company has been exceptionally
fortunate in the selection of its directors. The present
board are C. C. Gale (chairman), J. M. Atkinson, T.
J. Marks, L. J. Davies, and J. Hunter Stephenson, sup-
ported by Kelso King, managing director and chief exe-
cutive officer for fifty years, Selwyn King, manager
with 36 years of service with the Company and Alan
Blake, secretary, with 25 years' service to his credit.
Much of the success is due to the wise policy laid down
by the directors and management, supported by a loyal
and capable staff, many of whom have been almost a
lifetime with the Company.

Looking backwards, it cannot be doubted that the
founders of the Mercantile Mutual Insurance Company
were men of vision and enterprise, but it is doubtful if
they were aware of the very important step they took
when they decided on the establishment of the little office
that has grown to be one of Australia's leading Insurance
Companies. Had any citizen of 1878 the imagination
to foretell that within fifty years Australia would in-
crease her population threefold and hold the important

272 FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS IN AUSTRALIA

position she now occupies in the British Empire? Or
that Sydney, then the second city o the Commonwealth,
would not only rise to first place but would become the
second city, in white population, in the Empire? From
a review of the past it is certain that even greater pro-
gress will come in the future, with all classes working
together towards that end.

SITE OF HEAD OFFICE, 120 PITT STREET, CORNER OF HOWE STREET ON DATE
OF PURCHASE, 1885

HEAD OFFICE, 120 PITT STREET, 18J6-H1J

(MOLT OF DIRECTORS AND SECRETARY TAKEN ON THE OCCASION

OF THE OPENING OF THE COMPANY'S NEW HEAD OFFICES, 12U

PITT STttEET IN I88f>

HEAD OFFICE, MARTIN PLACE, 1919-1929

A ran AS
in 'ONicmna OIDJUMO cmm iN

DIRECTORS PAST AND PRESENT

JOHN POPE (1827-1912)

The first chairman of the Mercantile Mutual In-
surance Company (1878-86). Born in England, 1st
October, 1827. Attracted by the excitement of gold-
discovery m Australia, he arrived in Melbourne on 4th
October, 1852. After spending some time at Ballarat
he came to Sydney in 1856, joining the firm of Farmer,
Williams, & Giles, and was subsequently admitted to
full partnership, the title of the firm being altered to
Farmer, Painter & Pope, and more recently to Farmer
& Company. He retained his seat on the board of the
Mercantile Mutual Insurance Company until his death
in 1912.

Mr Pope was a man of sound judgment, with force
of character and a deep conviction of the importance of
his responsibilities. His enthusiasm in all his work gave an
inspiration to those associated with him in business and
other affairs.

JOHN POPE

GEORGE ALLAN MANSFIELD (1834-1908)

Deputy-Chairman of the Mercantile Mutual In-
surance Company from 1878 to 1886, when he was ap-
pointed Chairman on the retirement of John Pope.

In conjunction with the late A. H. McCulloch and
George Hardie, he founded the Company and was most
helpful in laying its foundations on a basis of perman-
ency.

Born in Sydney, 15th June, 1834. Was articled
co Mr. Hilly, architect, in 1851 and subsequently ac-
cepted a partnership with him. Later he joined his
brother in the firm of Mansfield Bros. This firm was
afterwards altered to Mansfield & Son.

Mr. Mansfield had an extensive practice as an
architect and played an important part in rebuilding Syd-
ney, besides designing and erecting many bank buildings
and residences throughout the country. He was the
foremost Sydney architect, and achieved his success by
unceasing labour, vigilance, and devotion to the work
entrusted to him, combined with outstanding ability.

28?

GEORGE ALLAN MANSFIELD

WILLIAM HENRY PALING

One of the first directors the Mercantile Mutual
Insurance Co. elected in 1878. Arrived at Sydney in
1853 and shortly afterwards founded the business con-
ducted under the name of W. H. Paling and Co,, Limi-
ted, A man of sterling character, he was associated with
many important enterprises connected with the progress
and development of Australia. His generosity and
philanthropy were unbounded. The founding and en-
dowment of the Carrington Convalescent Hospital is one
of his charitable works which will perpetuate the memory
of a fine citizen.

284

WILLIAM HENRY PALING

GEORGE HARDIE (1846-1918)

Was a Director of the Mercantile Mutual Insur-
ance Company from January 1878 to January 1888. In
association with G. A. Mansfield and A. H. McCulloch
he founded the Company.

He was born in 1846 at the Navigator Islands and
arrived in Australia in 1866, settling in Sydney. He
was senior partner in the firm of Hardie & Gorman, Real
Estate Agents and Auctioneers.

Mr. Hardie returned to England in 1888 and died
in 1918. He was a man of sound judgment, a striking
personality and possessed wonderful initiative.

286

GEORGE HARDTB

CAPTAIN JOHN BROOMFIELD (1822-1903)

Was appointed a Director of the Mercantile Mutual
Insurance Company from the date of its incorporation,
1878, until 1902, when he resigned through ill-health.

Captain Broomfield was born in England on 24th
May, 1822, and settled in Sydney in 1849, founding the
business of John Broomfield & Company in 1851. He
was a director of Mort's Dock and Engineering Com-
pany from its formation until 1902, and also of the Fresh
Food and Ice Company. He was also a member of the
Marine Board from the date of its incorporation until
ir was superseded by the Admiralty Court. He died on
22nd August, 1903,

He was a man of striking personality and force of
character, and by genuineness of sympathy inspired his
colleagues with confidence and encouragement.

288

CAPTAIN JOHN BftOOMFIELD

CHARLES CARLETON SKARRATT (1824-1900)

An original shareholder in the Mercantile Mutual
Insurance Company. Director from August 1878, re-
signed April 1881, prior to leaving for England.

Born in England on the 18th April, 1824, Mr. Skar-
ratt arrived in Melbourne in 1853, having been attracted
to Australia by the discovery of gold on the continent.
He was in business in Victoria and New South Wales
until 1875 and was a director of several important com-
panies, including the Mount Morgan Gold-Mining Com-
pany. He finally returned to England in 1893, and
died in London, 23rd November, 1900.

Mr. Skarratt was a man of striking personality and
achieved success in his affairs through intelligent devotion
to business. A fine sportsman, he won the esteem of his
fellow-men and gave evidence of generous consideration
Fnr others.

290

CHARLES CARLETON SKARRATT

RUSSELL BARTON ( 1830-1916)

Mr RusseJl Barton was elected a Director of the
Mercantile Mutual Insurance Company m June 1881
and became chairman of the Company in 1904. He
resigned the chairmanship in 1911 and retired from the
board of the Company in 1913 through ill-health.

Representing Bourke in the New South Wales Par-
liament for six years (1881-86), Russell Barton's in-
terests were mainly pastoral and mining. He won the
esteem of his fellow-men by application of the highest
principles to his business affairs and to his political career.
He was a director of many companies, including the fam-
ous Great Cobar Copper Company, and was Vice-Presi-
dent of the Water Conservation Commission.

292

RUSSELL BARTON

THE HON. W. J, TRICKETT, M.L.C. (1843-1916)

Was elected a director of the Mercantile Mutual
Insurance Company m 1886 and was chairman from 1911
until his death in July 1916.

Mr. Trickett was born at Gibraltar on 2nd Septem-
ber, 1843, and arrived in Sydney in 1853. He was
educated at the Sydney Grammar School, and was ad-
mitted a solicitor at the age of 22, shortly afterwards
entering into partnership with the Hon. W. H. Pigott,
M.L C. He served as Alderman and Mayor of Wool-
lahra over a period of 33 years and was Member for
Paddington in the N.S.W, Assembly for eight years
(1880-88), resigning on his appointment to the Legis-
lative Council.

Mr. Trickett held the office of Postmaster General
and Minister for Public Instruction in the Stuart Mini-
stry of New South Wales ( 1883-85). He was a Trustee
of the National Art Gallery, Vice-President of the
Sydney Grammar School, and Trustee of the Sydney
Cricket Ground, in addition to holding other important
positions which constituted him a useful citizen; always
active in work connected with the advancement of the
State and the improvement of the condition of its people.

294

THE HON W J TRICKETT, MLC

WALTER RUSSELL HALL

An original shareholder of the Mercantile Mutual
Insurance Co.; was a director from 1902 to 1911. He
was born at King ton, in Herefordshire, England, and
arrived in Sydney during 1852. He went to Victoria,
attracted by the gold discovery, subsequently became a
partner in Cobb & Company, and settled in Sydney. In
1884 he became interested in the Mount Morgan Gold
Mining Company, and retired from Cobb and Co. in
1886, was interested in various industries. He was a
director of the Electrolytic Refining and Smelting Com-
pany, the Sydney Meat Preserving Company, and a
member of the Committee of the Australian Jockey Club.
He died on 13th October 1911.

Mr, Hall was a man of sound judgment and strongly
marked personality} remarkably gifted as a judge of char-
acter, and in recognising the qualifications of those asso-
ciated with him in business affairs. In matters of a charit-
able nature he was liberal, and as a citizen he recognised
and discharged his obligations and his responsibilities to
the Empire. The "Walter and Eliza Hall" Trust was
founded by his widow.

296

BERNARD MtBRIDE (1847-1920)

Mr. McBnde was an original shareholder of the
Mercantile Mutual Insurance Company, and was a direc-
tor from August 1905 until his death on 7th February,
1920.

Born in Donegal, Ireland, on 6th February, 1847,
Mr. McBride arrived in Sydney in 1864, For some
years he was on the staff of Christopher Newton & Com-
pany, and then went into business on his own account.
He resided at Hunter's Hill, and took a keen interest
in the borough as an alderman, serving as Mayor for
several years. He was a member of the Council of the
National Defence Association of Australia and did much
towards introducing the Defence Act to this country.

Mr McBnde was a shrewd business man, possessed
of a deep conviction of his responsibilities and obligations
to the country. He won the affection of his fellow men
by the practice of the higher principles in all his affairs
and by his sympathetic nature.

298

BERNARD McBRIDE

CHARLES CLARENCE GALE.

Was elected director of the Mercantile Mutual In-
surance Company, in 1912, and became chairman of direc-
tors in 1928.

Mr Gale was born in the Clarence River District
and educated at Fort Street and Blackmore's schools. He
was articled to the late Septimus A. Stephen and com-
menced practice as solicitor at Moss Vale in 1 879. With
his son, L R. Gale, he founded the firm of Gale & Gale,
Solicitors, Sydney. He has been a director of the Aus-
tralian General Insurance Company from the date of its
formation and was elected its chairman in April 1928.

302

CHARLES CLARENCE GALE

JOHN MESSMAN ATKINSON, J.P.

Was born in April 1851 in Madras, India, where
his father, Major-General E. H. Atkinson, of the 19th
M.N.I., was at that time quartered. Educated at Wel-
lington Military College, Berkshire, England, he entered
the establishment of William Sentance, Tea Broker.

Attracted to Australia, he arrived in Sydney in
1872, and at once entered heartily into station life with
his brother-in-law, P. H. Osborne, at "Currandooley."
He became manager, and continued in that capacity until
1880, when he entered into partnership with Hy, Hill
Osborne, as joint-owner of "Thorndale" station, a lease-
hold property of 150,000 acres.

For about four years he was president of the Stock-
Owners 5 Association and also a member of the council of
the Pastoralists' Union for over a quarter of a century.

In 1913 he was elected a Director of the Mercantile
Mutual Insurance Co.

He acted as Honorary Secretary to the New South
Wales Bushmen's Contingent Fund raised for the dis-
patch of the Bushmen's Contingent to take part in the
South African War.

He has also taken an active part for some years
in the "Big Brother" movement, which has been instru-
mental in bringing so many promising youths as immi-
grants to this country.

304

10BN MKS8MAN ATKINSON, JP

THEODORE J. MARKS.

Mr. Marks was born at Jamberoo in the Illawarra
district in 1865. He was educated at the Sydney Gram-
mar School and afterwards served his articles under the
late G Allan Mansfield, one of the original directors of
the Mercantile Mutual, He then btudied architecture
for two years in different countries before commencing
the practice of his profession in Sydney in partnership
with the late Mr. Robertson. He was elected as a
Director of the Mercantile Mutual in 1916.

Mr Marks is a keen sportsman, and has designed
many of the stands and buildings at the principal race-
courses in Sydney, Melbourne, and Bombay. He has
also designed many fine buildings in Sydney, including
the new Head Office of the Bank of New South Wales,
and the present Head Office of the Mercantile Mutual,
both of which have added to the architectural beauty of
Sydney.

He has been Honorary Architect to the Sydney
Hospital and also the South Sydney Hospital for some
thirteen years, during which time these very necessary
Institutions have had the benefit of his expert know-
ledge and assistance in the interests of humanity.

306

THEODORE J MARKS

J. HUNTER STEPHENSON

Mr. J. Hunter Stephenson was born at Redfern,
educated at a private school at Newtown, and subse-
quently at the University of Sydney, where he gradu-
ated in Arts. He was articled to the late James C.
Taylor, Public Accountant, on whose death he succeeded
to that practice.

He was elected a director of the Australian General
Insurance Co. on 29th July, 1920, and of the Mercantile
Mutual Insurance Co. on 21st June, 1928

Mr, Stephenson took an active part in the work of
the British Immigration League, representing the Army
and Navy Immigration League and kindred bodies,
which brought out over 5000 men and settled them on
the land. He has also taken an active interest in the
"Big Brother" movement, by which similar good work
is being done.

310

J HUNTER STBPHENSON

SITl KELSO KING, KB
Managing 1 Directoi, Chief ICxe utive Officer from incoiJtion of Company

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